The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in (Northwestern Europe), off the coast of the (continental mainland). It comprises England, Scotland, (Wales), and Northern Ireland. The UK includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and most of the (smaller islands) within the (British Isles). Northern Ireland shares (a land border) with the Republic of Ireland; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the (North Sea), the English Channel, the (Celtic Sea), and the (Irish Sea). The total area of the United Kingdom is 94,354 square miles (244,376 km2), with an estimated population of nearly 67.6 million people in 2022.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | |
---|---|
(Flag) | |
Anthem: "(God Save the King)" | |
(Coats of arms): Used in relation to Scotland (right) and elsewhere (left) | |
Capital and largest city | London 51°30′N 0°7′W / 51.500°N 0.117°W |
National language |
|
Regional and minority languages |
|
(Ethnic groups) ((2011)) |
|
Demonym(s) |
|
(Government) | Unitary |
• (Monarch) | Charles III |
• (Prime Minister) | (Rishi Sunak) |
Legislature | Parliament |
• (Upper house) | (House of Lords) |
• (Lower house) | House of Commons |
(Formation) | |
• (Laws in Wales Acts) | 1535 and 1542 |
• (Union of the Crowns) | 24 March 1603 |
• (Treaty of Union) | 22 July 1706 |
• (Acts of Union of England and Scotland) | 1 May 1707 |
• (Acts of Union of Great Britain and Ireland) | 1 January 1801 |
• (Irish Free State Constitution Act) | 6 December 1922 |
(Area ) | |
• Total | 244,376 km2 (94,354 sq mi) (78th) |
• Land | 242,741 km2 (93,723 sq mi) |
(Population) | |
• 2022 estimate | 67,596,281 (22nd) |
• 2011 census | 63,182,178 |
• Density | 279/km2 (722.6/sq mi) ((51st)) |
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $4.029 trillion ((9th)) |
• Per capita | $58,880 ((27th)) |
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $3.495 trillion ((6th)) |
• Per capita | $51,075 ((21st)) |
(Gini) (2021) | 35.4 medium |
(HDI) (2022) | 0.940 very high ((15th)) |
Currency | (Pound sterling) ((GBP)) |
Time zone | UTC+0 ((GMT)) |
• Summer ((DST)) | UTC+1 (BST) |
Date format |
|
(Driving side) | left |
(Calling code) | (+44) |
(ISO 3166 code) | (GB) |
Internet TLD | (.uk) |
In 1707, the (Kingdom of England) (which included (Wales)) and the (Kingdom of Scotland) united under the (Treaty of Union) to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. The (Acts of Union 1800) incorporated the (Kingdom of Ireland) to create the (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) in 1801. Most of Ireland (seceded) from the UK in 1922 as the (Irish Free State), and the (Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927) created the present name, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The UK became the first country and was the world's (foremost power) for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the "(Pax Britannica)" between 1815 and 1914. At its height in the 1920s, the (British Empire) encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the . However, its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War damaged Britain's economic power and a global wave of (decolonisation) led to the independence of most British colonies. British influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of (its former colonies), and (British culture) remains globally influential, particularly (in language), (literature), (music) and (sport). English is the world's (most widely spoken language) and the (third-most spoken native language).
The United Kingdom is a (constitutional monarchy) and (parliamentary democracy). The UK has three distinct jurisdictions; (England and Wales), (Scotland) and (Northern Ireland). Since 1998, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own (devolved) governments and legislatures while England is governed directly by the UK Government. The UK's capital and largest city is London which is also surrounded by the (largest urban area). Other major cities with the (largest surrounding urban areas) include Manchester, Birmingham, (Leeds), (Glasgow), (Liverpool), (Southampton), (Newcastle), (Nottingham), Sheffield and (Bristol). Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland's national capital cities are Edinburgh, (Cardiff) and (Belfast), respectively.
The UK is a (developed country) and has the world's (sixth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product) (GDP), and the (ninth-largest by purchasing power parity). It is a recognised (nuclear state), and is ranked (fourth globally in military expenditure). The UK has been a (permanent member of) the (UN Security Council) since its first session in 1946. It is a member of the (Commonwealth of Nations), the (Council of Europe), the (G7), the (OECD), NATO, the (Five Eyes), (AUKUS) and the (CPTPP).
Etymology and terminology
The (Acts of Union 1707) declared that the (Kingdom of England) and (Kingdom of Scotland) were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain". The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used as a description for the former Kingdom of Great Britain, although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain". The (Acts of Union 1800) united the kingdoms of Great Britain and (Ireland) in 1801, forming the (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland). Following the (partition of Ireland) and the independence of the (Irish Free State) in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".
Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also widely referred to as (countries). The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom. Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve (NUTS 1 regions) refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions". Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province". With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".
The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole. The word England is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK.
The (term "Britain") is used as a synonym for Great Britain, and the United Kingdom. Usage is mixed: the (UK Government) prefers to use the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" on its website (except when referring to embassies), while acknowledging that both terms refer to the United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government". The UK (Permanent Committee on Geographical Names) recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland". The BBC historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland.
The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and (matters to do with nationality). People of the United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being (British), (English), (Scottish), (Welsh), (Northern Irish), or Irish; or as having a combination of different national identities. The official designation for a citizen of the United Kingdom is "British citizen".
History
Prior to the Treaty of Union
Settlement by (Cro-Magnons) of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. The island has been continuously inhabited only since the last retreat of the ice around 11,500 years ago. By the end of the (region's prehistoric period), the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed (Insular Celtic), comprising (Brittonic Britain) and (Gaelic Ireland).
The (Roman conquest), beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year (rule of southern Britain), was followed by an invasion by (Germanic) (Anglo-Saxon) settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly , (Cornwall) and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the (Hen Ogledd) (northern England and parts of southern Scotland). Most of the (region settled by the Anglo-Saxons) became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century. Meanwhile, (Gaelic-speakers in north-west Britain) (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century) united with the (Picts) to create the (Kingdom of Scotland) in the 9th century.
In 1066, the (Normans) invaded England from northern France. After (conquering England), they seized (large parts of Wales), (conquered much of Ireland) and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country (feudalism) on the Northern French model and (Norman-French) culture. The (Anglo-Norman) (ruling class) greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures. Subsequent (medieval English kings) completed the (conquest of Wales) and tried unsuccessfully (to annex Scotland). Asserting its independence in the 1320 (Declaration of Arbroath), Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in (near-constant conflict with England).
The English monarchs, through inheritance of (substantial territories in France) and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years' War, while the (Kings of Scots) were in (an alliance with the French) during this period.(Early modern Britain) saw religious conflict resulting from the (Reformation) and the introduction of (Protestant) state churches in each country. The (English Reformation) ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and (established) the (Church of England). Moreover, it defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs. Wales was (fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England), and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and (given to Protestant settlers) from England and Scotland.
In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a (personal union) when , inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.
In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms (were involved in a series of connected wars) (including the (English Civil War)) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the (execution of King Charles I), and the establishment of the short-lived (unitary republic) of the (Commonwealth of England), Scotland and Ireland.
Although the (monarchy was restored), the (Interregnum) along with the (Glorious Revolution) of 1688 and the subsequent (Bill of Rights 1689) in England and (Claim of Right Act 1689) in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, (royal absolutism) would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The (British constitution) would develop on the basis of (constitutional monarchy) and the (parliamentary system). With the founding of the (Royal Society) in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of (naval power) and the interest in voyages of discovery led to the acquisition and settlement of (overseas colonies), particularly in North America and the Caribbean.
Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the (Treaty of Union) of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments.
Kingdom of Great Britain
On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the (Acts of Union 1707). In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under (Robert Walpole), in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of (Jacobite uprisings) sought to remove the Protestant (House of Hanover) from the throne and restore the Catholic (House of Stuart). The Jacobites were finally defeated at the (Battle of Culloden) in 1746, after which the (Scottish Highlanders) were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of (clan chiefs). The British colonies in North America that broke away in the (American War of Independence) became the United States, recognised by Britain in 1783. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India.
Britain played a leading part in the (Atlantic slave trade), mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial (slave ships) transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa. The slaves were taken to work on (plantations), principally in the (Caribbean) but also (North America). Slavery coupled with the (Caribbean sugar industry) had a significant role in strengthening the British economy in the 18th century. However, with pressure from the (abolitionism movement), Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the (blockade of Africa) and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.
After the defeat of France at the end of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830)., British dominance was later described as ("British Peace"), a period of (relative peace among the great powers) (1815–1914) during which the (British Empire) became the global (hegemon) and adopted the role of global policeman. By the time of (the Great Exhibition) of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world". From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the Crimean War, allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia, participating in the naval battles of the (Baltic Sea) known as the (Åland War) in the (Gulf of Bothnia) and the (Gulf of Finland), among others. Following the (Indian Rebellion in 1857), the British government led by (Lord Palmerston) assumed (direct rule) over (India). Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively (controlled the economies) of regions such as (East Asia) and (Latin America).
Throughout the (Victorian era), political attitudes favoured (free trade) and (laissez-faire) policies, as well as a (gradual widening of the voting franchise), with the (1884 Reform Act) championed by (William Gladstone) granting (suffrage) to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid (urbanisation), causing significant social and economic stresses. By the late 19th century, the Conservatives under (Benjamin Disraeli) and (Lord Salisbury) initiated a period of (imperial expansion in Africa), maintained a policy of (splendid isolation) in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in (Afghanistan) and (Persia), in what came to be known as the (Great Game). During this time, Canada, Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing (dominion) status. At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the (German Empire) and the United States. The (Edwardian era) saw (social reform) and (home rule for Ireland) become important domestic issues, while the Labour Party emerged from an alliance of (trade unions) and small socialist groups in 1900, and (suffragettes) campaigned for women's right to vote.
World wars and partition of Ireland
Britain was one of the principal (Allies) that defeated the (Central Powers) in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts, British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the (Western Front). The high fatalities of (trench warfare) caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt. The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections with the (Representation of the People Act 1918). After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the (League of Nations) and received a (mandate) over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of (David Lloyd George), the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.
By the mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes. Experimental television broadcasts and the (first scheduled BBC Television Service) commenced in 1936. The rise of (Irish nationalism), and disputes within Ireland over the terms of (Irish Home Rule), led eventually to the (partition of the island) in 1921. The (Irish Free State) became independent, initially with (Dominion) status in 1922, and . Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. The (1928 Equal Franchise Act) gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the (General Strike of 1926), which ended in a victory for the government led by (Stanley Baldwin). Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the (Great Depression) (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A (coalition government) was formed in 1931.
Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system." After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a (coalition government) in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort.
In 1940, the (Royal Air Force) defeated the German (Luftwaffe) in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. The (Grand Alliance) of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the (Axis powers). There were eventual hard-fought victories in the (Battle of the Atlantic), the (North Africa campaign) and the (Italian campaign). British forces played important roles in the (Normandy landings) of 1944 and the . The British Army led the (Burma campaign) against Japan, and the (British Pacific Fleet) fought Japan at sea. British scientists (contributed to the Manhattan Project) whose task was to build an atomic weapon. Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan. The wartime net losses in British national wealth amounted to 18.6% (£4.595 billion) of the prewar wealth (£24.68 billion), at 1938 prices.
Postwar 20th century
The UK was one of the (Big Three) powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world; it was an original signatory to the (Declaration by United Nations) and became one of the five permanent members of the (United Nations Security Council). It worked closely with the United States to establish the (IMF), (World Bank) and NATO. The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the (Marshall Plan), but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.
In the immediate post-war years, the (Labour government) under (Clement Attlee) initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society (in the following decades). Major industries and public utilities were (nationalised), a (welfare state) was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the (National Health Service), was created. The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of (decolonisation) was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947. Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the (Commonwealth of Nations).
The UK was the third country to develop (a nuclear weapons arsenal) (with its first atomic bomb test, (Operation Hurricane), in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the (Suez Crisis) of 1956. The (international spread of the English language) ensured the continuing international influence of its (literature) and (culture). As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from (Commonwealth countries). In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society. Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan.
In the decades-long process of (European integration), the UK was a founding member of the (Western European Union), established with the (London and Paris Conferences) in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the (European Free Trade Association) (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the (European Communities) (EC). In a (1975 referendum) 67% voted to stay in it. When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states.
From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as (the Troubles). It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 (Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement).
Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by (Margaret Thatcher) initiated a radical policy of (monetarism), deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.
In 1982, (Argentina) invaded the British territories of (South Georgia) and the (Falkland Islands), leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a (2013 referendum). From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial (North Sea oil) revenues.
Another British overseas territory is (Gibraltar), it was ceded to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, the treaty covers the town, the port and fortifications. It has been a (key military base) for the UK and a (referendum in 2002) for shared sovereignty with Spain was lost by 98.97%.
Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of (devolved) administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The (statutory incorporation) followed acceptance of the (European Convention on Human Rights). The UK remained a with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO.
21st century
The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the "(war on terror)" in the early 21st century. British troops fought in the (War in Afghanistan), but controversy surrounded Britain's (military deployment in Iraq), which saw the (largest protest in British history) demonstrating in opposition to the government led by (Tony Blair).
The (2008 global financial crisis) severely affected the UK economy. The (Cameron–Clegg coalition) government of 2010 introduced (austerity) measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits. Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering. A referendum on (Scottish independence) in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate (voting by 55.3 to 44.7%) to remain part of the United Kingdom.
In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom (voted to leave the European Union). The UK left the EU in 2020. On 1 May 2021 the (EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement) came into force.
The (COVID-19 pandemic) had a severe (impact on the UK's economy), caused major (disruptions to education) and had (far-reaching impacts on society and politics) in 2020 and 2021. The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved (COVID-19 vaccine), developing its own vaccine through a collaboration between (Oxford University) and (AstraZeneca), which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world.
On 8 September 2022, Elizabeth II, the longest-living and (longest-reigning British monarch), (died) at the age of 96. Upon the Queen's death, her eldest child Charles, Prince of Wales, acceded to the (British throne) as Charles III.
Geography
The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 94,354 square miles (244,376 km2), with a land area of 93,723 square miles (242,741 km2). The country occupies the major part of the (British Isles) archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.
The in London was chosen as the defining point of the (Prime Meridian) at the (International Meridian Conference) in 1884.
The United Kingdom lies between latitudes (49°) and (61° N), and longitudes (9° W) and (2° E). Northern Ireland shares a 224-mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland. The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long. It is connected to continental Europe by the (Channel Tunnel), which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.
The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: (Celtic broadleaf forests), (English Lowlands beech forests), (North Atlantic moist mixed forests), and (Caledon conifer forests). The area of woodland in the UK in 2023 is estimated to be 3.25 million hectares, which represents 13% of the total land area in the UK.
Climate
Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round. The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below 0 (°C) (32 (°F)) or rising above 30 °C (86 °F). Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience a (subpolar oceanic climate) (Cfc). Higher elevations in Scotland experience a (continental subarctic climate) (Dfc) and the mountains experience a (tundra climate) (ET).
The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean, although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions, the eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.
The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible. The hours of sunshine vary from 1200 to about 1580 hours per year, and since 1996 the UK has been and still is receiving above the 1981 to 2010 average hours of sunshine.
As of 2022, the United Kingdom is ranked 2nd out of 180 countries in the . A law has been passed that (UK greenhouse gas emissions) will be (net zero) by 2050.
Topography
(England) accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering 50,350 square miles (130,395 km2). Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the (Tees–Exe line) which roughly divides the UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include (Cornwall), the (New Forest), the (South Downs) and the (Norfolk Broads). Upland areas include the (Lake District), the (Pennines), the (Yorkshire Dales), (Exmoor), and . The main rivers and estuaries are the (Thames), (Severn), and the (Humber). England's highest mountain is (Scafell Pike), at 978 metres (3,209 ft) in the Lake District; its largest island is the (Isle of Wight).
(Scotland) accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering 30,410 square miles (78,772 km2). This includes nearly 800 (islands), notably the (Hebrides), (Orkney) Islands and (Shetland) Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK, the (Highlands) to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including the (Cairngorms), (Loch Lomond and The Trossachs) and (Ben Nevis) which at 1,345 metres (4,413 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles.
(Wales) accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering 8,020 square miles (20,779 km2). Wales is mostly mountainous, though (South Wales) is less mountainous than (North) and (mid Wales). The highest mountains in Wales are in (Snowdonia) and include (Snowdon) ((Welsh): Yr Wyddfa) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales. Wales has over 1,680 miles (2,704 kilometres) of coastline including the (Pembrokeshire Coast). Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is (Anglesey) (Ynys Môn).
(Northern Ireland), separated from Great Britain by the (Irish Sea) and (North Channel), has an area of 5,470 square miles (14,160 km2) and is mostly hilly. It includes (Lough Neagh) which, at 150 square miles (388 km2), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area,(Lough Erne) which has over 150 islands and the (Giant's Causeway) which is a World Heritage Site. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is (Slieve Donard) in the (Mourne Mountains) at 852 metres (2,795 ft).
Politics
The UK is a (constitutional monarchy) and a (parliamentary democracy) operating under the (Westminster system), otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy". It is a (centralised), (unitary state) wherein the Parliament of the United Kingdom is (sovereign). Parliament is made up of the elected House of Commons, the appointed (House of Lords) and (the Crown) (as personified by the (monarch)). The main business of parliament takes place in the two houses, but royal assent is required for a bill to become an (act of parliament) (that is, (statute law)). As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the (British constitution) is (uncodified), consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary (statutes), judge-made (case law) and international treaties, together with . Nevertheless, the (Supreme Court) recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as (parliamentary sovereignty), the (rule of law), (democracy), and upholding (international law).
King Charles III is the current (monarch) and head of state of the UK and of 14 other independent countries. These 15 countries are today referred to as "(Commonwealth realms)". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of the Crown and is "...fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK." The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the (royal prerogative), is generally exercised only on the (advice) of (ministers of the Crown) responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties, the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn". In addition, the monarch has a number of at his disposal, albeit rarely used, to uphold (responsible government) and prevent (constitutional crises).
For (general elections) (elections to the House of Commons), the UK is currently divided into 650 (constituencies), each of which is represented by one member of Parliament (MP) elected by the (first-past-the-post) system. MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP. The Conservative Party, colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the Labour Party have been the dominant political parties in the UK since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a (two-party system). However, since the 1920s other (political parties) have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour.
The (prime minister) is the (head of government) in the UK. Acting under the direction and supervision of a (Cabinet) of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, the (Government) serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the (Privy Council), promulgates (statutory instruments) and tenders advice to the monarch. Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as (First Lord of the Treasury) and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905,(Minister for the Civil Service) since 1968, and (Minister for the Union) since 2019. While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by (convention), an MP, the leader of the (political party) with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to (command the confidence) of the House of Commons. The current Prime Minister, as of October 2022, is (Rishi Sunak) MP, leader of the Conservative Party.
Although not part of the United Kingdom, the three Crown Dependencies of (Jersey), (Guernsey) and Isle of Man and 14 (British Overseas Territories) across the globe are subject to the sovereignty of the British Crown. The Crown exercises its responsibilities in relation to the Crown Dependencies mainly through the British government's (Home Office) and for the British Overseas Territories principally through the (Foreign Office).
Administrative divisions
The geographical division of the United Kingdom into (counties) or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages, and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early Modern Period. Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales in (1888), Scotland in (1889) and Ireland in (1898), meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK. Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.
(Local government in England) is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier (subdivisions of England) are the nine regions, now used primarily for statistical purposes. One of the regions, (Greater London), has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a (1998 referendum).
(Local government in Scotland) is divided into (32 council areas) with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of (Glasgow), Edinburgh, (Aberdeen) and (Dundee) are separate council areas, as is the (Highland Council), which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.
(Local government in Wales) consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right. Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.
(Local government in Northern Ireland) since 1973, has been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries. In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.
Devolved governments
Beginning in 1998, a process of (devolution) has transferred legislative and executive powers previously held by United Kingdom institutions to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. As a result, a (Scottish Government) and (Parliament), (Welsh Government) and (Senedd) (Parliament) and (Northern Ireland Executive) and (Assembly) have been created. A similar process has not taken place for England.
The UK does not have a (codified constitution) and constitutional matters are not among the powers that have been devolved. Under the doctrine of (parliamentary sovereignty), the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly. In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd, because these institutions were created by referendum decisions. The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the (Government of Ireland). The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative powers in economic policy matters through an act passed in 2020.
Scotland
Since 1999, Scotland has had a devolved national government and parliament with wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically (reserved) to the UK Parliament. Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an (act of the UK parliament) passed in 2020.
The current (Scottish Government) is a (Scottish National Party) minority government, led by (First Minister) (John Swinney), leader of the Scottish National Party. In 2014, the (Scottish independence referendum) was held, with 55.3% voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7% voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. (Local government in Scotland) is divided into (32 council areas) with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.
The Scottish Parliament is separate from the Scottish Government, and is made up of 129 elected (Members of the Scottish Parliament) (MSPs) and is the law making body of Scotland. It does, however, scrutinise the work of the incumbent Scottish Government and considers any piece of proposed legislation through parliamentary debates, committees and parliamentary questions.
Wales
Since 1999, Wales has a devolved national government and legislature, known as the Senedd. Elections to the Senedd use the (additional member system). They have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland. The Senedd is able to legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament through (Acts of Senedd Cymru). The current (Welsh Government) is (Labour), led by (First Minister) (Vaughan Gething), who has been the First Minister since 2024. (Local government in Wales) consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself.
Northern Ireland
The devolved form of government in Northern Ireland is based on the 1998 (Good Friday Agreement), which brought to an end a 30-year period of (unionist)-(nationalist) communal conflict known as (The Troubles). The Agreement was (confirmed by referendum) and implemented later that year. It established (power sharing) arrangements for a devolved government and legislature, referred to as the Executive and Assembly respectively. Elections to the Assembly use the (single transferable vote) system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland.[] The Executive is led by a (diarchy) representing (unionist) and (nationalist) members of the Assembly. The (First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland) are the joint heads of government of Northern Ireland.(Local government in Northern Ireland) since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities.
Foreign relations
The UK is a (permanent member) of the (United Nations Security Council), a member of NATO, (AUKUS), the (Commonwealth of Nations), the (G7 finance ministers), the (G7 forum), the (G20), the OECD, the (WTO), the (Council of Europe) and the (OSCE). The UK has the (British Council) which is a British organisation based in over 100 countries specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities. The UK is said to have a "(Special Relationship)" with the United States and a close partnership with France – the "(Entente cordiale)" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries; the (Anglo-Portuguese Alliance) is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a (Common Travel Area) and co-operate through the (British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference) and the (British-Irish Council). Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, (official development assistance) and military engagements. Canada, Australia and New Zealand, all of which are former colonies of the British Empire which share King Charles as their head of state, are the most favourably viewed countries in the world by (British people).
Law and criminal justice
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as Article 19 of the (1706 Treaty of Union) provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system. Today the UK has three distinct (systems of law): (English law), (Northern Ireland law) and (Scots law). A new (Supreme Court of the United Kingdom) came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. The (Judicial Committee of the Privy Council), including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the (British Overseas Territories) and the Crown Dependencies.
Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and (Northern Ireland law) are based on (common-law) principles. The (courts of England and Wales) are headed by the (Senior Courts of England and Wales), consisting of the (Court of Appeal), the (High Court of Justice) (for civil cases) and the (Crown Court) (for criminal cases). Scots law is a hybrid system based on common-law and (civil-law) principles. The chief courts are the (Court of Session), for civil cases, and the (High Court of Justiciary), for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.
Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66 per cent in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015, according to (crime statistics). As of June 2023, the United Kingdom has the highest per-capita incarceration rate in Western Europe.
(UK labour laws) entitle staff to have a minimum set of employment rights including a (minimum wage), a minimum of 28 days annual holiday, statutory sick pay and a (pension). (Same-sex marriage) has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in Northern Ireland since 2020.(LGBT equality) in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards.
Military
(His Majesty's Armed Forces) consist of three professional service branches: the (Royal Navy) and (Royal Marines) (forming the (Naval Service)), the British Army and the (Royal Air Force). The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the (Ministry of Defence) and controlled by the (Defence Council), chaired by the (Secretary of State for Defence). The (Commander-in-Chief) is the (British monarch), to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance. The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO, including the (Allied Rapid Reaction Corps), the (Five Power Defence Arrangements), (RIMPAC) and other worldwide coalition operations. (Overseas garrisons) and facilities are maintained in (Ascension Island), (Bahrain), (Belize), (Brunei), (Canada), (Cyprus), (Diego Garcia), the (Falkland Islands), (Germany), (Gibraltar), (Kenya), (Oman), (Qatar) and (Singapore).
According to sources which include the (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute) and the (International Institute for Strategic Studies), the UK has either the fourth- or the fifth-highest (military expenditure). Total defence spending in 2024 is estimated at 2.3% of GDP. Following the end of the Cold War, defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.
Economy
The UK has a partially regulated (market economy). Based on market (exchange rates), the UK is the (sixth-largest economy) in the world and the (second-largest) in Europe by nominal GDP.
The United Kingdom uses the (pound sterling), the fourth most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market and the world's fourth-largest reserve currency (after the United States dollar, euro, and (yen)). Sterling was the 2nd best-performing G10 currency against the dollar in 2023 with a gain of about 5%, with only the (Swiss franc) performing better.London is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a global market share of 38.1% in 2022 of the daily $7.5 trillion global turnover.HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's (public finance) policy and (economic policy). The (Bank of England) is the UK's (central bank) and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. In 2022, the UK became the world's (fourth-largest exporter) behind only China, the US, and Germany. The estimated nominal GDP of the UK for 2024 is £2.765 trillion. This value is 23% higher than the 2019 figure of £2.255 trillion before leaving the EU (at similar US and EU exchange rates to 2019).
The (service sector) made up around 80% of the UK's (GVA) in 2021. As of 2022, the UK is the world's (second-largest exporter of services). London is one of the world's largest financial centres, ranking second in the world in the (Global Financial Centres Index) in 2022. London also has the (largest city GDP) in Europe. Edinburgh ranks 17th in the world, and sixth in Western Europe in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2020.(Tourism) is very important to the British economy; London was named as Europe's most popular destination for 2022. The (creative industries) accounted for 5.9% of the UK's GVA in 2019, having grown by 43.6% in real terms from 2010. Creative industries contributed more than £111bn to the UK economy in 2018, growth in the sector is more than five times larger than growth across the UK economy as a whole as reported in 2018.(Lloyd's of London) is the world's largest (insurance) and (reinsurance) market and is located in London.(WPP plc), the world's biggest advertising company, is also based in the UK. The UK is one of the leading retail markets in Europe and is home to Europe's largest e-commerce market.(John Lewis) is the UK's largest employee owned business.
The (automotive industry) employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2022 of £67 billion, generating £27 billion of exports (10% of the UK's total export of goods). In 2023, the UK produced around 905,100 passenger vehicles and 120,400 commercial vehicles, output was up 17.0% on the previous year. Britain is known for iconic cars such as (Mini) and (Jaguar), also other luxury cars such as (Rolls-Royce), (Bentley) and (Range Rover). The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2022 around 1.5 million engines were produced. It is also the world's (fourth-largest exporter of engines), as of 2021. The UK motorsport industry employs more than 40,000 people, comprises around 4,300 companies and has an annual turnover of around £10 billion. 7 of the 10 Formula One teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from (McLaren), (Aston Martin) and (Lotus).
The (aerospace industry of the UK) is the second-largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion. The (UK space industry) was worth £17.5bn in 2020/21 and employed 48,800 people. Since 2012, the number of space organisations has grown on average nearly 21% per year, with 1,293 organisations reported in 2021. The (UK Space Agency) has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6 billion in space related projects.
The (agriculture industry) is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 per cent of food needs with less than 1.6 per cent of the labour force (535,000 workers). Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. It is also rich in a variety of natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.
The United Kingdom has among the highest levels of (income inequality) in Europe and the (OECD), and is one of the most (regionally unequal) high-income countries in the world.
Science and technology
England and Scotland were leading centres of the (Scientific Revolution) from the 17th century. The United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances. Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose (laws of motion) and illumination of (gravity) have been seen as a keystone of modern science; from the 19th century (Charles Darwin), whose theory of (evolution) by (natural selection) was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and (James Clerk Maxwell), who formulated classical (electromagnetic theory); and more recently (Stephen Hawking), who advanced major theories in the fields of (cosmology), (quantum gravity) and the investigation of (black holes).
The (Department for Science, Innovation and Technology) (DSIT) is responsible for helping to encourage, develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in (British universities), with many establishing (science parks) to facilitate production and co-operation with industry. In 2022 the UK retained its number one spot for technology in Europe reaching a combined market value of $1 trillion. Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders.
For four consecutive years, from 2020 to 2023, the UK maintained its fourth-place ranking in the (Global Innovation Index), a position determined by approximately 80 indicators encompassing the political environment, education, infrastructure, and knowledge creation, among others. During 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (for both). The UK ranked 1st in the world for Field-Weighted Citation Impact. Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the (Royal Society), (Nature), the (British Medical Journal) and (The Lancet).
Transport
A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads. The (M25), encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world. In 2022, there were a total of 40.8 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.
The UK has an extensive railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209 km). In Great Britain, the (British Rail) network was (privatised) between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers. (Great British Railways) is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee (rail transport in Great Britain). The UK was ranked eighth among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.
The UK has a direct train between London and Paris which takes 2hrs 16mins called the (Eurostar), it travels through the (Channel Tunnel) under the English Channel, at 23.5 miles long it's the world's longest undersea tunnel. There is also a car service through the tunnel to France called (LeShuttle). (Crossrail), which was renamed the (Elizabeth line) in 2016, in honour of Queen Elizabeth II, opened in 2022. It was Europe's largest construction project at the time and is estimated to bring in £42 billion to the UK economy.(High Speed 2) (HS2) is a new high speed railway under construction linking up London, the Midlands, the North and Scotland, serving over 25 stations, including eight of Britain's 10 largest cities and connecting around 30 million people, capable of speeds of up to 225 mph.
In 2014, there were 5.2 billion bus journeys in the UK, 2.4 billion of which were in London. The red (double-decker) bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of England. The (London bus network) is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about six million passengers on over 700 different routes making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe.
During 2023, (UK airports) handled a total of 272.8 million passengers. In that period the three largest airports were (London Heathrow Airport) (79.1 million passengers), (Gatwick Airport) (40.9 million passengers) and (Manchester Airport) (28.1 million passengers). London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, is the world's second busiest airport by (international passenger traffic) and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world; it is the hub for the UK flag carrier (British Airways), as well as (Virgin Atlantic).
Energy
In 2021, the UK was the world's 14th-largest consumer of energy and the 22nd-largest producer. The UK is home to many large energy companies, including two of the six major oil and gas companies – BP and (Shell).
The total of all renewable electricity sources provided 43% of the electricity generated in the UK in 2020. The UK is (one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy), and wind power production is the country's fastest-growing supply; in 2022, 26.8% of the UK's total electricity was generated by wind power. The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of Yorkshire.
In 2023, the UK had 9 nuclear reactors normally generating about 15 per cent of the UK's electricity. Unlike Germany and Japan, there are two reactors under construction and more planned. In the late 1990s, nuclear power plants contributed around 25 per cent of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK government is investing in (Small Modular Reactors) and research and development.
In 2021, the UK produced 935 thousand (barrels) per day (bbl/d) of oil (and other liquids) and consumed 1,258 thousand bbl/d. Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005. In 2020[update], the UK had around 2 billion barrels of proven (crude oil reserves).
In 2021, the UK was the 21st-largest producer of natural gas in the world. Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004. In 2020, the UK produced 1.8 million tonnes of coal falling 91% in 10 years. In 2020 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 26 million tonnes. The UK (Coal Authority) has stated that there is a potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through (underground coal gasification) (UCG) or 'fracking', and based on current UK coal consumption, such reserves could last between 200 and 400 years.
Water supply and sanitation
Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96 per cent of households are connected to the sewer network. According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 (megalitres) per day in 2007.
In England and Wales water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, (Scottish Water). In Northern Ireland water and sewerage services are also provided by a single public entity, (Northern Ireland Water).
Demographics
In the (2011 census) the total population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775. It is the (fourth-largest) in Europe (after Russia, Germany and France), the fifth-largest in the Commonwealth and the (22nd-largest) in the world. In mid-2014 and mid-2015 net long-term international migration contributed more to population growth. In mid-2012 and mid-2013 natural change contributed the most to population growth. Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased by an average annual rate of approximately 0.7 per cent. The 2011 census also showed that, over the previous 100 years, the proportion of the population aged 0–14 fell from 31 per cent to 18 per cent, and the proportion of people aged 65 and over rose from 5 to 16 per cent. In 2018 the (median age) of the UK population was 41.7 years.
England's population in 2011 was 53 million, representing some 84 per cent of the UK total. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 420 people per square kilometre in mid-2015, with a particular concentration in London and the south-east. The 2011 census put Scotland's population at 5.3 million, Wales at 3.06 million and Northern Ireland at 1.81 million.
In 2017 the average (total fertility rate) (TFR) across the UK was 1.74 children born per woman. While a rising birth rate is contributing to population growth, it remains considerably below the (baby boom) peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964, or the high of 6.02 children born per woman in 1815, below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63. In 2011, 47.3 per cent of births in the UK were to unmarried women. The (Office for National Statistics) reported in 2015 that out of the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 per cent identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (2.0 per cent of males and 1.5 per cent of females); 4.5 per cent of respondents responded with "other", "I don't know", or did not respond. The number of transgender people in the UK was estimated to be between 65,000 and 300,000 by research between 2001 and 2008.
Largest urban areas of the United Kingdom (England and Wales: 2011 census built-up area; Scotland: 2016 estimates settlement; Northern Ireland: 2001 census urban area) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Rank) | (Urban area) | ( Pop.) | (Principal settlement) | (Rank) | (Urban area) | ( Pop.) | (Principal settlement) | ||
1 | (Greater London) | 9,787,426 | London | 11 | (Bristol) | 617,280 | (Bristol) | ||
2 | (Greater Manchester) | 2,553,379 | Manchester | 12 | Edinburgh | 512,150 | Edinburgh | ||
3 | (West Midlands) | 2,440,986 | Birmingham | 13 | (Leicester) | 508,916 | (Leicester) | ||
4 | (West Yorkshire) | 1,777,934 | (Leeds) | 14 | (Belfast) | 483,418 | (Belfast) | ||
5 | (Greater Glasgow) | 985,290 | (Glasgow) | 15 | ( Brighton & Hove) | 474,485 | (Brighton) | ||
6 | (Liverpool) | 864,122 | (Liverpool) | 16 | ( South East Dorset) | 466,266 | (Bournemouth) | ||
7 | (South Hampshire) | 855,569 | (Southampton) | 17 | ( Cardiff) | 390,214 | (Cardiff) | ||
8 | (Tyneside) | 774,891 | (Newcastle upon Tyne) | 18 | (Teesside) | 376,633 | (Middlesbrough) | ||
9 | (Nottingham) | 729,977 | (Nottingham) | 19 | (Stoke-on-Trent) | 372,775 | (Stoke-on-Trent) | ||
10 | (Sheffield) | 685,368 | Sheffield | 20 | ( Coventry) | 359,262 | (Coventry) |
Ethnicity
Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be (descended from the various ethnic groups) that settled there before the 12th century: the (Celts), Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the (Normans). (Welsh people) could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK. The UK has a history of non-white immigration with (Liverpool) having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade. During this period it is estimated the Afro-Caribbean population of Great Britain was 10,000 to 15,000 which later declined due to the abolition of slavery. The UK also has the oldest (Chinese) community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century. In (2011)[update], 87.2 per cent of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8 per cent of the UK population identify themselves as of one of an (ethnic minority) group.
Ethnic group | Population (absolute) | Population (per cent) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2001 | 2011 | 2001 | 2011 | ||
White | 54,153,898 | 55,010,359 | 92.1% | 87.1% | |
White: Gypsy, Traveller and Irish Traveller | – | 63,193 | – | 0.1% | |
Asian and Asian British | Indian | 1,053,411 | 1,451,862 | 1.8% | 2.3% |
Pakistani | 747,285 | 1,174,983 | 1.3% | 1.9% | |
Bangladeshi | 283,063 | 451,529 | 0.5% | 0.7% | |
Chinese | 247,403 | 433,150 | 0.4% | 0.7% | |
Other Asian | 247,664 | 861,815 | 0.4% | 1.4% | |
Black, African, Caribbean and Black British | 1,148,738 | 1,904,684 | 2.0% | 3.0% | |
Mixed or multiple ethnic groups | 677,117 | 1,250,229 | 1.2% | 2.0% | |
Other ethnic groups | 230,615 | 580,374 | 0.4% | 0.9% | |
Total | 58,789,194 | 63,182,178 | 100.0% | 100.0% |
Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4 per cent of London's population and 37.4 per cent of (Leicester)'s was estimated to be non-white in 2005[update], whereas less than 5 per cent of the populations of (North East England), Wales and the (South West) were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census. In 2016[update], 31.4 per cent of primary and 27.9 per cent of secondary pupils at (state schools) in England were members of an ethnic minority.
Languages
The English language is the official and most spoken language of the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom proactively promotes the language globally to build connections, understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries worldwide. It is estimated that 95 per cent of the UK's population are (monolingual) English speakers. 5.5 per cent of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of relatively recent immigration. South Asian languages are the largest grouping which includes (Punjabi), (Urdu), (Bengali), (Sylheti), Hindi, (Pahari-Pothwari), (Tamil), and Gujarati. According to the 2011 census, Polish has become the second-largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers. In 2019, some three-quarters of a million people spoke little or no English.
Three indigenous (Celtic languages) are spoken in the UK: (Welsh), (Irish) and (Scottish Gaelic). (Cornish), which became extinct as a first language in the late 18th century, is subject to revival efforts and has a small group of second language speakers. According to the (2021 census), the (Welsh-speaking population) of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 people (17.8 per cent). In addition, it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England. In the 2021 census in Northern Ireland 12.4% of people had some ability in the (Irish language) and 10.4% of people had some ability in the (Ulster-Scots) language. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2 per cent of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 per cent of those living in the (Outer Hebrides). The number of children being taught either Welsh or Scottish Gaelic is increasing.(Scots), a language descended from early northern (Middle English), has limited (recognition) alongside its regional variant, (Ulster Scots) in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion. As of April 2020, there are said to be around 151,000 users of (British Sign Language) (BSL), a (sign language) used by deaf people, in the UK.
Religion
Forms of (Christianity) have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years. Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century, while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam. This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith,(secularised), or (post-Christian) society.
In the 2001 census, 71.6 per cent of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being (Islam) (2.8 per cent), Hinduism (1.0 per cent), (Sikhism) (0.6 per cent), (Judaism) (0.5 per cent), Buddhism (0.3 per cent) and all other religions (0.3 per cent). Of the respondents, 15 per cent stated that they had (no religion) and a further 7 per cent did not state a religious preference. A (Tearfund) survey in 2007 showed that only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly. Between the 2001 and 2011 census, there was a 12 per cent decrease in the number of people who identified as Christian, while the percentage of those reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing by the most substantial margin to a total of about 5 per cent. The (Muslim population) has increased from 1.6 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011, making it the second-largest religious group in the UK.
The Church of England is the (established church) in England. It retains a (representation) in the UK Parliament, and the British monarch is its (Supreme Governor). In (Scotland), the (Church of Scotland) is recognised as the (national church). It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and (Presbyterian Church Government)" upon his or her accession. The (Church in Wales) was disestablished in 1920 and, because the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the (partition of Ireland), there is no established church in Northern Ireland. Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 per cent of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 per cent Catholic, 6 per cent Presbyterian, and 3.4 per cent Methodist, with small numbers of other Protestant denominations such as (Plymouth Brethren), and Orthodox churches.
Migration
Immigration is now contributing to a rising UK population, with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. According to official statistics released in 2015, 27 per cent of UK live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK. The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21 per cent to 239,000.
In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of British citizenships granted annually was 195,800. The most common previous nationalities of those naturalised in 2014 were Indian, Pakistani, Filipino, Nigerian, (Bangladeshi), (Nepali), Chinese, South African, Polish and (Somali). The total number of grants of settlement, which confer (permanent residence) in the UK but not citizenship, was approximately 154,700 in 2013, higher than the previous two years.
Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930, around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century, some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe. Today, at least 5.5 million UK-born people live abroad, mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.
Education
Education in the United Kingdom is a (devolved) matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38 per cent of the United Kingdom population has a university or (college degree), which is the highest percentage in Europe, and among the highest percentages in the world. The United Kingdom is home to many universities, including the University of Oxford and (University of Cambridge) which often achieve first place on global rankings.
University education has varied tuition fees between the different regions of the UK. England and Wales have a fixed maximum annual fee for all UK citizens. Northern Ireland and Scotland have a reduced maximum fee or no fee for citizens where it is their home region. Some NHS courses have bursaries which pay the fee and in 2017 it was stated that each doctor gets subsidised by £230,000 during their training.
In 2022, the (Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)), coordinated by the (OECD), ranked the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 14th in the world in reading, mathematics and science. The average British student scored 494, well above the OECD average of 478.
Healthcare
The modern-system of (universal) (publicly funded) in the United Kingdom has its origins in the creation of the (National Health Service) (NHS) in 1949 which still exists to this day and is the primary healthcare provider in the United Kingdom. The widespread popularity of the NHS has led to it being described as a "national religion". Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a (devolved matter) and each country has its own system of universal publicly funded healthcare, although private healthcare is also available. Public healthcare is provided to all (UK permanent residents) and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from (general taxation). The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.
Since 1979, expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly. The 2018 (OECD) data, which incorporates in health a chunk of what in the UK is classified as social care, has the UK spending £3,121 per head. In 2017 the UK spent £2,989 per person on healthcare, around the median for members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the (General Medical Council), the (Nursing and Midwifery Council) and non-governmental-based, such as the (Royal Colleges). Political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national (executives); (healthcare in England) is the responsibility of the UK Government; (healthcare in Northern Ireland) is the responsibility of the (Northern Ireland Executive); (healthcare in Scotland) is the responsibility of the (Scottish Government); and (healthcare in Wales) is the responsibility of the (Welsh Government). Each (National Health Service) has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.
Culture
The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by many factors including: the nation's island status; (its history); and being a (political union) of four countries with each preserving elements of distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. As a result of the (British Empire), British influence can be observed in the language, culture and (legal systems) of many of (its former colonies), in particular, the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Ireland, a common culture known today as the (Anglosphere). The substantial cultural influence of the United Kingdom has led to it being described as a "(cultural superpower)". A global survey in 2023 ranked the UK 3rd in the 'Most Influential Countries' rankings (behind the US and China).
Literature
British literature includes literature associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the (Channel Islands). Most British literature is in English. In 2022, 669 million physical books were sold in the UK, this is the highest overall level ever recorded. Britain is renowned for (children's literature), writer’s includes (Daniel Defoe), Rudyard Kipling, (Lewis Carroll) and (Beatrix Potter) who also illustrated her own books. Other writers include (A.A. Milne), (Enid Blyton), (J.R.R. Tolkien), (Roald Dahl), (Terry Pratchett) and (J.K. Rowling) who wrote the best selling book series of all time.
The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time. Other important English writers include (Geoffrey Chaucer), known for (The Canterbury Tales), the poet (William Wordsworth) and other (romantic poets), also the novelists (Charles Dickens), (H. G. Wells), (George Orwell) and (Ian Fleming). The 20th-century English crime writer (Agatha Christie) is the (best-selling novelist) of all time. Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by (George Eliot), (Virginia Woolf), (Charlotte) and (Emily Brontë), (Mary Shelley), (Jane Austen), (Doris Lessing) and (Zadie Smith).
(Scotland's contributions) include Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of (Sherlock Holmes)), (Sir Walter Scott), (J. M. Barrie), (Robert Louis Stevenson) and the poet (Robert Burns). More recently (Hugh MacDiarmid) and (Neil M. Gunn) contributed to the (Scottish Renaissance), with grimmer works from (Ian Rankin) and (Iain Banks). Scotland's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO's first worldwide (City of Literature).
Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, (Y Gododdin), which was composed most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in (Cumbric) or (Old Welsh) and contains the earliest known reference to (King Arthur). The Arthurian legend was further developed by (Geoffrey of Monmouth). Poet (Dafydd ap Gwilym) (fl. 1320–1370) is regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.(Daniel Owen) is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing (Rhys Lewis) in 1885. The best-known of the (Anglo-Welsh poets) are (Dylan Thomas) and (R. S. Thomas), the latter nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include (Richard Llewellyn) and (Kate Roberts).
Northern Ireland’s most popular writer is (C.S. Lewis) who was born in (Belfast) and wrote (The Chronicles of Narnia). Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include (Oscar Wilde),(Bram Stoker) and (George Bernard Shaw). There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including (Joseph Conrad),T. S. Eliot,(Kazuo Ishiguro), Sir (Salman Rushdie) and (Ezra Pound).
Philosophy
The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of '(British Empiricism)', a branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the '(Scottish School of Common Sense)'. The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are (John Locke), (George Berkeley) and (David Hume); while (Dugald Stewart), (Thomas Reid) and (William Hamilton) were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of (utilitarianism), a moral philosophy first used by (Jeremy Bentham) and later by (John Stuart Mill) in his short work (Utilitarianism).
Music
Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the indigenous (folk music) of (England), , (Scotland) and (Northern Ireland). Historically, there has been exceptional Renaissance music from the (Tudor period), with masses, madrigals and lute music by (Thomas Tallis), (John Taverner), (William Byrd), (Orlando Gibbons) and (John Dowland). After the (Stuart Restoration), an English tradition of dramatic masques, anthems and airs became established, led by (Henry Purcell), followed by (Thomas Arne) and others. The German-born composer George Frideric Handel became a (naturalised) (British citizen) in 1727, when he composed the anthem (Zadok the Priest) for the (coronation of George II); it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous (Messiah), were written in the English language. In the second half of the 19th century, as (Arthur Sullivan) and his librettist (W. S. Gilbert) wrote their popular (Savoy operas), (Edward Elgar)'s wide range of music rivalled that of his contemporaries on the continent. Increasingly, however, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its (folk music), notably (Gustav Holst), Ralph Vaughan Williams, and (Benjamin Britten), a pioneer of modern British opera. Among the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: (Peter Maxwell Davies) (Orkney), (Harrison Birtwistle) (mythological), and (John Tavener) (religious). Today, recent classical singers include: (Alfie Boe), (Bryn Terfel), (Katherine Jenkins), (Michael Ball), (Roderick Williams), (Russell Watson) and (Sarah Brightman), while (Nicola Benedetti) and (Nigel Kennedy) are renowned for their violin ability.
According to (The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians), the term "(pop music)" originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe (rock and roll)'s fusion with the "new youth music".The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that artists such as the Beatles and (the Rolling Stones) drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s. Birmingham became known as the birthplace of heavy metal, with the band (Black Sabbath) starting there in the 1960s. In the following years, Britain widely occupied a part in the development of (rock music), with British acts pioneering (hard rock);(raga rock); heavy metal;(space rock); (glam rock);(Gothic rock),(psychedelic rock), and (punk rock). British acts also developed (neo soul) and created (dubstep). The modern UK is known to produce some of the most prominent English-speaking rappers along with the United States, including (Stormzy), (Kano), (Yxng Bane), (Ramz), (Little Simz) and (Skepta).
The Beatles have international sales of over 1 billion units and are the (biggest-selling) and (most influential band in the history of popular music). Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, (Pink Floyd), (Queen), (Led Zeppelin), the (Bee Gees), and (Elton John), all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more. The (Brit Awards) are the (BPI's) annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the (Outstanding Contribution to Music) award include (the Who), (David Bowie), Eric Clapton, (Rod Stewart), (the Police), and (Fleetwood Mac) (who are a British-American band). More recent UK music acts that have had international success include (George Michael), (Oasis), , (Radiohead), (Coldplay), (Arctic Monkeys), (Robbie Williams), (Amy Winehouse), (Susan Boyle), (Adele), (Ed Sheeran), (Lewis Capaldi), (One Direction), (Harry Styles) and (Dua Lipa).
A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide. Glasgow's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a UNESCO (City of Music). Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as (acid house), and from the mid-1990s, (Britpop). London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of (electronic music) sub-genres such as (drum and bass) and (trip hop).
UK dance music traces its roots back to the Black British (Sound System Culture) and the (New Age Traveller) movement of the 60s and 70s, it also has influences from (New Wave) and (Synth-pop) such as from bands (New Order) and (Depeche Mode) and also has influences from the (Chicago House) and (Detroit Techno) scenes. In the late 80's, dance music exploded with (Rave) culture mainly (Acid House) tracks which were made mainstream with novelty records (such as Smart E's (Sesame's Treet) and the Prodigy's (Charly)) and the (Balearic sound) brought back from the Ibiza club scene. This led on to genres such as (UK Garage), (Speed Garage), (Drum and bass), (Jungle), (Trance) and (Dubstep). Influential UK dance acts past and present include (808 State), (Orbital), (the Prodigy), (Underworld), (Roni Size), (Leftfield), , (Groove Armada), (Fatboy Slim), (Faithless), (Basement Jaxx), (Chemical Brothers), (Sub Focus), , (Disclosure), (Calvin Harris) and (Fred Again). Other influential UK DJs include (Judge Jules), (Pete Tong), (Carl Cox), (Paul Oakenfold), (John Digweed) and (Sasha).
Visual art
Major British artists include: the Romantics (William Blake), (John Constable), (Samuel Palmer) and (J. M. W. Turner); the (portrait) painters (Sir Joshua Reynolds) and (Lucian Freud); the landscape artists (Thomas Gainsborough) and L. S. Lowry; the pioneer of the (Arts and Crafts Movement) (William Morris); the figurative painter (Francis Bacon); the (Pop artists) (Peter Blake), (Richard Hamilton) and (David Hockney); the pioneers of (Conceptual art) movement ; the collaborative duo (Gilbert and George); the (abstract) artist (Howard Hodgkin); and the sculptors (Antony Gormley), (Anish Kapoor) and (Henry Moore). During the late 1980s and 1990s the (Saatchi Gallery) in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "(Young British Artists)": (Damien Hirst), (Chris Ofili), (Rachel Whiteread), (Tracey Emin), (Mark Wallinger), (Steve McQueen), (Sam Taylor-Wood) and the (Chapman Brothers) are among the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement.
The (Royal Academy) in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school (University of the Arts London), which includes the (Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design) and (Chelsea College of Art and Design); (Goldsmiths, University of London); the (Slade School of Fine Art) (part of (University College London)); the (Glasgow School of Art); the (Royal College of Art); and (The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art) (part of the University of Oxford). The (Courtauld Institute of Art) is a leading centre for the teaching of the (history of art). Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the (National Gallery), (National Portrait Gallery), (Tate Britain) and (Tate Modern) (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).
Cinema
The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors (Alfred Hitchcock), whose film (Vertigo) is considered by some critics as the (best film of all time), and David Lean who directed Lawrence of Arabia are among the most critically acclaimed directors of all time. Recent popular directors include: (Christopher Nolan), (Sam Mendes), (Steve McQueen), (Danny Boyle), (Tony Scott) and Ridley Scott. Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the (highest-grossing film franchises) (Harry Potter and (James Bond)).
2019 was a particularly good year for British films which grossed around £10.3 billion globally which was 28.7% of global box office revenue. UK box-office takings totalled £1.25 billion in 2019, with around 176 million admissions. In 2023 UK film and television studio stage space stands at 6.9 million sq ft, with 1 million sq ft added in the past year with more in development. The annual BAFTA Film Awards are hosted by the (British Academy of Film and Television Arts).
Cuisine
British cuisine developed from various influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. The food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. The traditional (Sunday roast) is one example, featuring a (roasted joint), usually of beef, lamb, chicken or pork, often (free range) (and generally grass-fed, in the case of beef). Roasts are served with either roasted or boiled vegetables, (Yorkshire pudding), and (gravy). Other traditional meals include (meat pies) and various (stews). A 2019 YouGov poll rated classic British food, the following had more than 80% of people like them who had tried them: Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, Fish and chips, Crumpets, and Full English breakfast.
The UK is home to a large selection of (fine-dining) experiences, in 2024 there were 187 Restaurants with a (Michelin Star), 49 of them consider their cuisine to be 'Modern British'. Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of (British desserts). Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840.(Vegan) and (vegetarian) diets have increased in Britain in recent years. In 2021, a survey found that 8% of British respondents eat a plant-based diet and 36% of respondents have a favourable view of plant-based diets.
The (British Empire) facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have (settled in Britain), producing hybrid dishes, such as (chicken tikka masala). The British have embraced world cuisine and regularly eat recipes or fast food from Europe, the Caribbean and Asia.
Media
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the (television licence). The (BBC World Service) is an (international broadcaster) owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest of any kind. It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.
Other major players in the UK media include (ITV), which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network, and (Sky). Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the (Daily Mail), The Guardian, The Telegraph, The Times, and the Financial Times. Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include (The Spectator), The Economist, New Statesman, and Radio Times.
London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although (MediaCityUK) in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people. In 2015, the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, much of this being exported to other (Anglophone) countries.
In 2010, 82.5 per cent of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion among the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year. The (British video game industry) is the largest in Europe, and, since 2022, the UK has the (largest video game market) in Europe by sales, overtaking (Germany). It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after (Japan) and the (United States).
Sport
Association football, (tennis), (table tennis), (badminton), (rugby union), rugby league, (rugby sevens), (golf), (boxing), (netball), (water polo), (field hockey), (billiards), (darts), (rowing), (rounders) and cricket originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century (Victorian Britain).
A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the UK. England is recognised by (FIFA) as the birthplace of club football, and the (Football Association) is the oldest of its kind, with the (rules of football) first drafted in 1863 by (Ebenezer Cobb Morley). Each of the (Home Nations) (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and (league system), and each is individually a governing member of the (International Football Association Board) alongside FIFA. The English top division, the Premier League, is the most watched football league in the world. The first international football match was contested by (England) and Scotland on 30 November 1872. England, Scotland, Wales and (Northern Ireland) usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.
In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK. The sport was created in (Rugby School), Warwickshire, and the (first rugby international) took place on 27 March 1871 between (England) and (Scotland). England, Scotland, (Wales), (Ireland), (France) and Italy compete in the (Six Nations Championship), which is the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. (Sports governing bodies) in (England), (Scotland), (Wales) and (Ireland) organise and regulate the game separately. Every four years, the Home Nations make a combined team known as the (British and Irish Lions) which tours Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
The United Kingdom hosted the Summer Olympic Games in (1908), (1948) and 2012, with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the (2022 Commonwealth Games), the seventh time a (constitute country in the United Kingdom) hosted the (Commonwealth Games) (England, Scotland and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once).
Symbols
The (flag of the United Kingdom) is the (Union Flag) (also referred to as the Union Jack). It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the (flag of England), representing (Saint George), on the (flag of Scotland), representing (Saint Andrew), and was updated in 1801 with the addition of (Saint Patrick's Flag). Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out. The (national anthem) of the United Kingdom is "(God Save the King)", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman.
(Britannia) is a (national personification) of the United Kingdom, originating from (Roman Britain). Beside (The Lion and the Unicorn) and the (dragon) of heraldry, the bulldog is an iconic animal and commonly represented with the Union Flag. A now rare personification is a character originating in the 18th century, (John Bull).
(England), (Wales), and (Scotland) each have a number of their own national symbols, including their national flags. (Northern Ireland) also has a number of symbols, many of which are shared with Republic of Ireland.
See also
- (Outline of the United Kingdom)
- (Outline of England)
- (Outline of Northern Ireland)
- (Outline of Scotland)
- (Outline of Wales)
- (Index of United Kingdom-related articles)
- (International rankings of the United Kingdom)
- (Historiography of the United Kingdom)
- (Historiography of the British Empire)
- (United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union)
Notes
- "God Save the King" is the National Anthem by custom, not statute, and there is no authorised version. Only the first verse is usually sung. The words King, he, him, his, used at present, are replaced by Queen, she, her when the monarch is female.
- Scots, Ulster Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic and Irish are classed as (regional) or (minority) languages under the (Council of Europe)'s (European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages). These include defined obligations to promote those languages. See also (Languages of the United Kingdom). Welsh has limited (de jure) official status in Wales, as well as in the provision of national government services provided for Wales.
- Although the United Kingdom has traditionally been seen as a (unitary state), an alternative description of the UK as a "union state", put forward by, among others, (Vernon Bogdanor), has become increasingly influential since the adoption of devolution in the 1990s. A union state is considered to differ from a unitary state in that while it maintains a central authority it also recognises the authority of historic rights and infrastructures of its component parts.
- (ONS) Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water'. Excludes (Channel Islands), Isle of Man and (British Overseas Territories).
- (ONS) Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'. Excludes (Channel Islands), Isle of Man and (British Overseas Territories).
- Some of the devolved countries, Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories issue their own sterling banknotes or currencies, or use another nation's currency. See (List of British currencies).
- Also observed by the Crown Dependencies. For further information, see .
- Except two overseas territories: (Gibraltar) and the (British Indian Ocean Territory)
- The (.gb) domain is also reserved for the UK, but has been little used.
- Usage is mixed. The Guardian and Telegraph use Britain as a synonym for the United Kingdom. Some prefer to use Britain as shorthand for Great Britain. The British (Cabinet Office)'s (Government Digital Service) style guide for use on (gov.uk) recommends: "Use UK and United Kingdom in preference to Britain and British (UK business, UK foreign policy, ambassador and high commissioner). But British embassy, not UK embassy."
- The Isle of Man, (Guernsey) and (Jersey) are Crown Dependencies and not part of the UK.
- The United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution but an unwritten one formed of Acts of Parliament, court judgments, traditions, and conventions.
- Compare to section 1 of both of the 1800 (Acts of Union) which reads: the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall...be united into one Kingdom, by the Name of "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".
- British (sovereignty) derives from the Crown, a (corporation sole) occupied by the monarch. It is therefore by and through the monarch that Parliament exercises supreme legislative authority over both the executive and judiciary. Distinguished Professor of (Public Law) Maurice Sunkin opined the Crown symbolically occupies "…what in other places would be a core element of a written constitution." As a result of this state of constitutional affairs, the monarch is formally referred to as "" in legislation.
- For instance, the monarch alone appoints the prime minister and confers (state honours) in the personal gift of the Crown. When necessary, the monarch may also refuse a (dissolution) or (prorogation of Parliament), withhold royal assent to (primary legislation), and prevent illegal use of the (British Armed Forces), among other reserve powers.
- Real GDP is an inflation adjusted GDP which is needed if you need to study changes in volume rather than value especially if the currency devalues due to the inflation but does not show current market values.
- The 2011 Census recorded Gypsies and Travellers as a separate ethnic group for the first time.
- In the 2011 Census, for the purpose of harmonising results to make them comparable across the UK, the ONS includes individuals in Scotland who classified themselves in the "African" category (29,638 people), which in the Scottish version of the census is separate from "Caribbean or Black" (6,540 people), in this "Black or Black British" category. The ONS note that "the African categories used in Scotland could potentially capture White/Asian/Other African in addition to Black identities".
- Berkeley is in fact Irish but was called a 'British empiricist' due to the territory of what is now known as the Republic of Ireland being in the UK at the time.
- In 2012, the President of the IOC, (Jacques Rogge), stated, "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".
References
- "National Anthem". The Royal Family. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- . (Council of Europe). Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
- "Welsh language on GOV.UK – Content design: planning, writing and managing content – Guidance". gov.uk. from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.; "Welsh language scheme". GOV.UK. from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.; "Welsh language scheme". GOV.UK. from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- Bradbury, Jonathan (2021). Constitutional Policy and Territorial Politics in the UK: Volume 1: Union and Devolution 1997–2012. Policy Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN .
- Leith, Murray Stewart (2012). Political Discourse and National Identity in Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. p. 39. ISBN .
- Gagnon, Alain-G.; Tully, James (2001). Multinational Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN .; Bogdanor, Vernon (1998). "Devolution: the Constitutional Aspects". In Beatson, Jack (ed.). Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom: Practice and Principles. Oxford: Hart Publishing. p. 18. ISBN .
- "Standard Area Measurements (Latest) for Administrative Areas in the United Kingdom". (Open Geography Portal). Office for National Statistics. 24 April 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024.
- "Estimates of the population for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland". Office for National Statistics. 26 March 2024. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
- "2011 UK censuses". Office for National Statistics. from the original on 10 January 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
- "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- "Income inequality". OECD Data. (OECD). from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). (United Nations Development Programme). 13 March 2024. (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- "Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". GOV.UK. 9 November 2023. 10.2 Definitions. from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
usually shortened to United Kingdom ... The abbreviation is UK or U.K.
- "United Kingdom". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 February 2024. from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- "A Beginners Guide to UK Geography (2023)". Open Geography Portal. Office for National Statistics. 24 August 2023. from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- . Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom.
- Mathias, P. (2001). The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN .; Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books. ISBN .
- (McDougall, Walter A.) (4 May 2023). "20th-century international relations". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
- (Brown, Judith) (1998). The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV. Oxford University Press. ISBN . from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009. p. 319
- Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. I.B. Tauris. ISBN . from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2009. p. 337
- Abernethy, David (2000). The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980. Yale University Press. ISBN . from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2009. p. 146
- "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?". Ethnologue. 2023. from the original on 18 June 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
- What is the UK Constitution?, The Constitution Unit of UCL, 9 August 2018, from the original on 7 November 2018, retrieved 6 February 2020
- The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?" 4 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 July 2013; "United Kingdom" 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine CIA The World Factbook. Retrieved 17 July 2013
- Dewart, Megan (2019). The Scottish Legal System. UK: (Bloomsbury Academic). p. 57. ISBN . from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate 'law areas', with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law).
; . Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800.
- "Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland". United Kingdom Government. from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...
; . Transport Research Knowledge Centre. Archived from the original on 4 April 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010. - "IISS Military Balance 2021". The Military Balance. 121 (1): 23–29. January 2021. doi:10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791. S2CID 232050862. from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- da Silva, Diego Lopes; Tian, Nan; Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie; Marksteiner, Alexandra; Liang, Xiao (April 2022). Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021 (fact sheet). (SIPRI). doi:10.55163/DZJD8826. S2CID 248305949. from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
- . Scots History Online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2011; Barnett, Hilaire; Jago, Robert (2011). Constitutional & Administrative Law (8th ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 165. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- "After the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the nation's official name became 'Great Britain'", The American Pageant, Volume 1, Cengage Learning (2012); "From 1707 until 1801 Great Britain was the official designation of the kingdoms of England and Scotland". The Standard Reference Work: For the Home, School and Library, Volume 3, Harold Melvin Stanford (1921); "In 1707, on the union with Scotland, 'Great Britain' became the official name of the British Kingdom, and so continued until the union with Ireland in 1801". United States Congressional serial set, Issue 10; Issue 3265 (1895); (Gascoigne, Bamber). "History of Great Britain (from 1707)". History World. from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
- Cottrell, P. (2008). The Irish Civil War 1922–23. Bloomsbury USA. p. 85. ISBN .
- S. Dunn; H. Dawson (2000), An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict, (Lewiston, New York): (Edwin Mellen Press),
One specific problem – in both general and particular senses – is to know what to call Northern Ireland itself: in the general sense, it is not a country, or a province, or a state – although some refer to it contemptuously as a statelet: the least controversial word appears to be jurisdiction, but this might change.
; "Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements" (PDF). ISO 3166-2. International Organization for Standardization. 15 December 2011. (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2012. - "Countries within a country". Prime Minister's Office. 10 January 2003. Archived from the original on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- . Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.; . Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
- Dunn, Seamus; Dawson, Helen (2000). An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict. (Lewiston, New York): (Edwin Mellen Press). ISBN .; Murphy, Dervla (1979). (A Place Apart). London: Penguin. ISBN .
- (Whyte, John); (FitzGerald, Garret) (1991). Interpreting Northern Ireland. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN .
- "Guardian Unlimited Style Guide". London: Guardian News and Media Limited. 19 December 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2011.; "BBC style guide (Great Britain)". BBC News. 19 August 2002. from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 23 August 2011.; "Key facts about the United Kingdom". Government, citizens and rights. HM Government. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- (New Oxford American Dictionary): "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom."
- "When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain, sometimes the United Kingdom, sometimes the British Isles — but never England." — George Mikes (1946), How To Be An Alien, Penguin ISBN ; "England OR United Kingdom (UK)? | Vocabulary | EnglishClub". www.englishclub.com. from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
- "Britain Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary". dictionary.cambridge.org. from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.; . Oxford Dictionaries – English. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016.
- "Britain definition and meaning". www.collinsdictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary. from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- "Britain – Definition for English-Language Learners". learnersdictionary.com. Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary. from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- "A to Z – Style guide". www.gov.uk. UK Government. from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (17 May 2023). "Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom". gov.uk. UK Government. from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- . BBC Academy. BBC. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.; . BBC News. BBC. Archived from the original on 26 March 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- Bradley, Anthony Wilfred; Ewing, Keith D. (2007). Constitutional and administrative law. Vol. 1 (14th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Longman. p. 36. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- "Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself?". Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2010. ARK – Access Research Knowledge. 2010. from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
- "Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2020.; Schrijver, Frans (2006). Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 275–277. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- "Ancient skeleton was 'even older' 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine". BBC News. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
- Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 973. ISBN .
- (Davies, John); (Jenkins, Nigel); Baines, Menna; (Lynch, Peredur I.), eds. (2008). (The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales). Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 915. ISBN .
- "Short Athelstan biography". BBC History. from the original on 13 February 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- (Mackie, J.D.) (1991). A History of Scotland. London: Penguin. pp. 18–19. ISBN .; Campbell, Ewan (1999). Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots. Edinburgh: Canongate. pp. 8–15. ISBN .
- Haigh, Christopher (1990). The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN .
- Ganshof, F.L. (1996). Feudalism. University of Toronto. p. 165. ISBN .
- (Chibnall, Marjorie) (1999). The Debate on the Norman Conquest. Manchester University Press. pp. 115–122. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
- Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years' War" 14 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. BBC History.
- The Reformation in England and Scotland 15 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- "English Reformation c1527-1590". The National Archives. from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
- "British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors". BBC History. 5 November 2009. from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- Nicholls, Mark (1999). A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 171–172. ISBN .
- Canny, Nicholas P. (2003). Making Ireland British, 1580–1650. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–200. ISBN .
- Ross, D. (2002). Chronology of Scottish History. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. ISBN ; Hearn, J. (2002). Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. ISBN
- "English Civil Wars". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2013.; "Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660". Archontology.org. 14 March 2010. from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- Lodge, Richard (2007) [1910]. The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702). Read Books. p. 8. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- . Royal Navy History. Institute of Naval History. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2015.; Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN . from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- "Articles of Union with Scotland 1707". UK Parliament. from the original on 8 June 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2008.; "Acts of Union 1707". UK Parliament. from the original on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 6 January 2011.; . Scottish History online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- Library of Congress, The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad 28 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, p. 73.
- Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 12. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. Oxford University Press, US. p. 15. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. OUP Oxford. p. 83. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- Sailing against slavery 3 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. BBC Devon. 2007.; Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 290. ISBN .
- . Act of Union Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. ISBN .
- Johnston, pp. 508–510.; Porter, p. 332.; Sondhaus, L. (2004). Navies in Modern World History. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. ISBN .; Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 332. ISBN .
- "The Workshop of the World". BBC History. from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- Benn, David Wedgwood (March 2012). "The Crimean War and its lessons for today". International Affairs. 88 (2). Oxford University Press: 387–391. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x. JSTOR 41428613.
- Nordisk familjebok (1913), s. 435 9 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Swedish)
- Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN .; Marshall, P.J. (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN . from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- Tompson, Richard S. (2003). Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present. New York: Facts on File. p. 63. ISBN .
- Fromkin, David (1980). "The Great Game in Asia". Foreign Affairs. 58 (4): 936–951. doi:10.2307/20040512. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20040512. from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
- Hosch, William L. (2009). World War I: People, Politics, and Power. America at War. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 21. ISBN .
- Zarembka, Paul (2013). Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
- Sophia A. Van Wingerden, The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928 (1999) ch 1.
- Turner, John (1988). Britain and the First World War. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. ISBN .
- Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). History of World War I, Volume 3. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. ISBN .
- Turner, J. (1988). Britain and the First World War. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. ISBN .
- "100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough". Ofcom. 15 June 2020. from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
- Linfoot, Matthew. "History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio". bbc.com. from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- "History of the BBC: 1920s". bbc.com. from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- /533 of 3 May 1921.
- "The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921". CAIN Web Service. from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. ISBN .
- Edgerton, David (2012). Britain's War Machine. www.penguin.co.uk. from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020; "Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War". Reviews in History. from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- Septimus H. Paul (2000). Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952. Ohio State U.P. pp. 1–5. ISBN .
- "Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945". United States Department of State. from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
- Broadberry, Stephen; Howlett, Peter (1998). "The United Kingdom: 'Victory at all costs'". In Harrison, Michael (ed.). The economics of World War II: Six great powers in international comparison (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 69. (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2023.
- Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2016.; Kelly, Brian. The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives. Indiana University of Pennsylvania. from the original on 22 October 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
- . Roosevelt Institute. 22 July 2010. Archived from the original on 25 January 2018. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
and the joint efforts of both powers to create a new post-war strategic and economic order through the drafting of the Atlantic Charter; the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; and the creation of the United Nations.
; "Remarks by the President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron in Joint Press Conference" (Press release). The White House. 22 April 2016. from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2018.That's what we built after World War II. The United States and the UK designed a set of institutions – whether it was the United Nations, or the Bretton Woods structure, IMF, World Bank, NATO, across the board.
- "Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S." The New York Times. 28 December 2006. from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- Reynolds, David (17 April 2011). "Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review". The Guardian. London. from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- Francis, Martin (1997). Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain. Manchester University Press. pp. 225–233. ISBN .
- Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 173–199. ISBN .
- Larres, Klaus (2009). A companion to Europe since 1945. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 118. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- . (Commonwealth Secretariat). 19 March 2009. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- . Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
- (PDF). British Politics Review. 6 (1). Norway: British Politics Society. Winter 2011. ISSN 1890-4505. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2018.
- Sheridan, Greg (15 May 2010). "Cameron has chance to make UK great again". The Australian. Sydney. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
- Julios, Christina (2008). Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse. Studies in migration and diaspora. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 84. ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- "1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum". BBC News. from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- Aughey, Arthur (2005). The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement. London: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN .; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." Holland, Jack (1999). Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland. New York: Henry Holt. p. 221. ISBN .; Elliot, Marianne (2007). The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University. University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. ISBN .
- Dorey, Peter (1995). British politics since 1945. Making contemporary Britain. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 164–223. ISBN .
- Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (2007). (PDF) (11th ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Press. p. 6. ISBN . Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
- Wikisource. – via
- Keating, Michael (1 January 1998). "Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom". Publius: The Journal of Federalism. 28 (1): 217–234. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948.
- McCourt, David (2014). Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics. (University of Michigan Press). ISBN . from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
- McSmith, Andy (5 July 2016). "The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq". Independent. London. from the original on 4 July 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
- Adams, Tim (11 February 2023). "'A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world?". The Observer. London. from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
- "Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices)". Office for National Statistics. 20 December 2013. from the original on 29 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- "What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now?". BBC News. 7 November 2022. from the original on 28 July 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- Butler, Patrick (4 October 2022). "Over 330,000 excess deaths in Great Britain linked to austerity, finds study". The Guardian. London.