Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country located in Southwestern (Europe), with parts of its territory in the (Atlantic Ocean), the (Mediterranean Sea) and (Africa). It is the largest country in (Southern Europe) and the fourth-most populous (European Union) member state. Spanning across the majority of the (Iberian Peninsula), its territory also includes the (Canary Islands) in the Atlantic Ocean, the (Balearic Islands) in the Mediterranean Sea, and the of (Ceuta) and (Melilla) in Africa. (Peninsular Spain) is bordered to the north by (France), (Andorra), and the (Bay of Biscay); to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and (Gibraltar); and to the west by (Portugal) and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and (largest city) is (Madrid), and other major (urban areas) include (Barcelona), (Valencia), (Zaragoza), (Seville), (Málaga), (Murcia), (Palma de Mallorca), (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria), and (Bilbao).
Kingdom of Spain Reino de España ((Spanish)) 7 other names
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(Flag) ( Coat of arms) | |||||||||||||||
Motto: (Plus ultra) ((Latin)) (English: "Further Beyond") | |||||||||||||||
Anthem: (Marcha Real) ((Spanish)) (English: "Royal March") | |||||||||||||||
Capital and largest city | (Madrid) 40°26′N 3°42′W / 40.433°N 3.700°W | ||||||||||||||
Official language | (Spanish) | ||||||||||||||
Nationality (2024) |
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Religion (2023) |
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(Demonym(s)) |
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(Government) | Unitary (parliamentary constitutional monarchy) | ||||||||||||||
• (Monarch) | (Felipe VI) | ||||||||||||||
• (Prime Minister) | (Pedro Sánchez) | ||||||||||||||
• (President of the Congress of Deputies) | (Francina Armengol) | ||||||||||||||
• (President of the Senate) | (Pedro Rollán) | ||||||||||||||
Legislature | (Cortes Generales) | ||||||||||||||
• (Upper house) | (Senate) | ||||||||||||||
• (Lower house) | (Congress of Deputies) | ||||||||||||||
(Formation) | |||||||||||||||
• (Dynastic Union) | 20 January 1479 | ||||||||||||||
• (Sole Sovereign) | 14 March 1516 | ||||||||||||||
• (Centralized State) | 9 June 1715 | ||||||||||||||
• (First Constitution) | 19 March 1812 | ||||||||||||||
• (Current Constitution) | 29 December 1978 | ||||||||||||||
• | 1 January 1986 | ||||||||||||||
(Area ) | |||||||||||||||
• Total | 505,990 km2 (195,360 sq mi) ((51st)) | ||||||||||||||
• Water (%) | 0.89 | ||||||||||||||
(Population) | |||||||||||||||
• 2024 estimate | 48,692,804 ((30th)) | ||||||||||||||
• Density | 97/km2 (251.2/sq mi) ((121th)) | ||||||||||||||
(GDP) ((PPP)) | 2024 estimate | ||||||||||||||
• Total | $2.516 trillion ((15th)) | ||||||||||||||
• Per capita | $52,012 ((37th)) | ||||||||||||||
(GDP) (nominal) | 2024 estimate | ||||||||||||||
• Total | $1.647 trillion ((15th)) | ||||||||||||||
• Per capita | $34,045 ((32nd)) | ||||||||||||||
(Gini) (2022) | 32.0 medium | ||||||||||||||
(HDI) (2022) | 0.911 very high ((27th)) | ||||||||||||||
Currency | (Euro) ((€)) ((EUR)) | ||||||||||||||
Time zone | (UTC)±0 to +1 ((WET) and (CET)) | ||||||||||||||
• Summer ((DST)) | (UTC)+1 to +2 ((WEST) and (CEST)) | ||||||||||||||
Note: most of Spain observes CET/CEST, except the (Canary Islands) which observe WET/WEST. | |||||||||||||||
Date format | dd/mm/yyyy ((CE)) | ||||||||||||||
(Driving side) | right | ||||||||||||||
(Calling code) | (+34) | ||||||||||||||
(ISO 3166 code) | (ES) | ||||||||||||||
(Internet TLD) | (.es) |
In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by (Celtic) and (Iberian) tribes, along with other local (pre-Roman peoples). With the (Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula), the province of (Hispania) was established. Following the (Romanization) and (Christianization) of Hispania, the (fall of the Western Roman Empire) ushered in the (inward migration) of tribes from Central Europe, including the (Visigoths), who formed the (Visigothic Kingdom) centred on (Toledo). In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was (conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate), and during early Islamic rule, (Al-Andalus) became a dominant peninsular power centred in (Córdoba). Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them (Asturias), (León), (Castile), (Aragon), (Navarre), and (Portugal); made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as the (Reconquista), repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the (Nasrid Kingdom of Granada) in 1492. The dynastic union of the (Crown of Castile) and the (Crown of Aragon) in 1479 under the (Catholic Monarchs) is often considered the de facto unification of Spain as a (nation-state).
During the (Age of Discovery), Spain pioneered the (exploration) of the (New World) and the (first circumnavigation of the globe). At the same time, it formed one of the (largest empires in history) through colonization. The (Spanish empire) reached a global scale and spread across continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by (precious metals). The 18th century was marked by extensive reforms and, notably, the (Bourbon reforms) centralized mainland Spain. In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic occupation and the victorious (Spanish War of independence), the following political divisions between (liberals) and (absolutists) led to the (breakaway) of most of the (American colonies). These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with the (Spanish Civil War), giving rise to the (Francoist dictatorship) that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an (economic boom) that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since the Siglo de Oro, (Spanish art), (architecture), (music), (poetry), (painting), (literature), and (cuisine) have been influential worldwide, particularly in (Western Europe) and the (Americas). Spain is one of the main nations of (Latin Europe) and a . As a reflection of its large (cultural wealth), Spain is the world's (second-most visited country), has one of the world's largest numbers of (World Heritage Sites), and it is the most popular destination for (European) students. Its cultural influence extends to over 600 million (Hispanophones), making (Spanish) the world's (second-most spoken native language) and the world's most widely spoken (Romance language).
Spain is a (secular) (parliamentary democracy) and a (constitutional monarchy), with King (Felipe VI) as (head of state). It is a major advanced capitalist economy, with the world's (fifteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP) (fourth of the European Union) and the (fifteenth-largest by PPP.) Spain is a member of the (United Nations), the European Union, the (eurozone), (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) (NATO), a permanent guest of the (G20), and is part of many other international organizations such as the (Council of Europe) (CoE), the (Organization of Ibero-American States) (OEI), the (Union for the Mediterranean), the (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (OECD), the (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe) (OSCE), and the (World Trade Organization) (WTO).
Etymology
The name of Spain (España) comes from (Hispania), the name used by the Romans for the (Iberian Peninsula) and its provinces during the (Roman Empire). The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region as Spania (meaning "Land of rabbits"), therefore, the most accepted theory is the (Phoenician) one. There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin:
spy, meaning "to forge metals". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are forged". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of (Hadrian) show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and (Strabo) called it the "land of the rabbits". The word in question actually means "(Hyrax)", possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals.
argued that the root of the term span is the (Phoenician) wordThere is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the (Basque) word Ezpanna, meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.
History
Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples
Archaeological research at (Atapuerca) indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by (hominids) 1.3 million years ago. Archaeo-palaeontological records in (Sierra de Atapuerca), inside the caves and in the open-air sites, have confirmed a continuous settlement from the Lower Pleistocene (Lower Paleolithic) to the Holocene (Bronze Age), with several species of hominids ((Homo antecessor), (Homo heidelbergensis), (Homo neanderthalensis) y (Homo sapiens)) exploiting the same territory. According to these authors, in the surroundings of Sierra de Atapuerca, the archaeological consequence of the continuous territorial occupation of the same area from 1.3 Ma to the Bronze Age (2100-850 cal. BC) has been the deposition of hundreds of open-air sites, with campsites, flintknapping workshops and other sites with complementary economic activities.
In the Iberian Peninsula Oldowan stone tools (Mode 1) have been found at the following sites (caves and open-air sites): Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Granada), Barranco León (Orce, Granada), Sima del Elefante (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), Gran Dolina TD6 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) and in other open-air sites. The archaeo-palaeontological records in (Sierra de Atapuerca) (Burgos, Spain) from Lower Paleolithic have provided Oldowan stone tools associated with (Homo antecessor) (Gran Dolina site, TD6 level, ca. 800,000 years BP)
Acheulean stone tools (Mode 2) have been found in the Middle Pleistocene caves and in open-air sites of the main valleys (i.e., Quaternary terraces of the rivers Ebro, Duero, Arlanzón, Arlanza, Pisuerga, Miño, Tormes, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, etc.) The archaeo-palaeontological records in (Sierra de Atapuerca) (Burgos, Spain) from Lower Paleolithic have provided Acheulean tools associated with (Homo heidelbergensis) (ca. 450,000 years BP)
Mousterian stone tools (Mode 3) have been found in the Middle and Upper Pleistocene caves and in open-air sites of the main valleys. The archaeo-palaeontological records in the (Sierra de Atapuerca) caves (Burgos, Spain) from Middle Paleolithic (i.e., Galería de las Estatuas y Cueva Fantasma sites) have provided Mousterian stone tools associated with (Homo neanderthalensis) (ca. 250,000 to 30,000 years BP).
Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years ago.[] The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the (Altamira cave) of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 (BCE) by (Cro-Magnon). Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the (last ice age).
The Iberian (Epipaleolithic), —also described as Mesolithic—, is divided into three stages from 9300 cal. BC to 5200 cal BC. The (Neolithic) began on the Iberian Peninsula in 5700/5600 cal. BC according to several sites in the Levant area of the Peninsula. On the Northern Iberian Plateau is present in the karst records and the open air sites from the last third of the VI millennium cal. BC.
According to radiocarbon datings, the Pre-Bell Beaker (Chalcolithic) began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 3000 cal. BC and the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic appeared around 2500 cal. BC. The Early (Bronze Age) began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 2100 cal. BC and Late Bronze Age in 1350 cal. BC. In the three phases of the Iberian Bronze Age, different cultures emerged, which have been defined by regions with typical names: e.g. (El Argar), (Las Motillas), (Bronce Atlántico), , , (Las Cogotas) and others. The (Iron Age) began in 850/800 cal. BC.
The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the (Iberians) and the (Celts). The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula. (Basques) occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influenced (Tartessians) flourished in the southwest; and (Lusitanians) and (Vettones) occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by (Phoenicians), and trading outposts and colonies were established by (Greeks) in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-(Carthaginians) expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.
Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom
During the (Second Punic War), roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expanding (Roman Republic) captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the (conquest of the Iberian Peninsula), they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the (Roman road).
The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually (Romanised) (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.
Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, (wool), (olive oil), and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors (Hadrian), (Trajan), (Theodosius I), and the philosopher (Seneca) were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century. Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period. Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-African (Mauri) in the province of (Baetica) took place.
The (Germanic) (Suebi) and (Vandals), together with the (Sarmatian) (Alans), entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.
The (Byzantines) established an occidental province, (Spania), in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under (Visigothic rule).
Muslim era and Reconquista
From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the (Umayyad Caliphate), which had (conquered North Africa) from the (Byzantine Empire), nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The (Kingdom of Asturias-León) consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms such as (Navarre) and (Aragon) in the mountainous north eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian (Marca Hispanica). For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of the peninsula was along the (Ebro) and (Douro) valleys.
Conversion to (Islam) proceeded at an increasing pace. The (muladíes) (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.
A series of (Viking) incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries. The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians' (ballistas); and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of King (Ramiro I of Asturias).
In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms ((Taifas)), often subject to the payment of a form of (protection money) ((Parias)) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of (Toledo) in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.[] The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the (Almoravids) and the (Almohads) achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.
The (Kingdom of León) was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in (León) ((Cortes of León)). The (Kingdom of Castile), formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from (feudalism).
Muslim strongholds in the (Guadalquivir Valley) such as Córdoba (1236) and (Seville) (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The (County of Barcelona) and the (Kingdom of Aragon) entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229 (Majorca) was conquered, so was (Valencia) in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African (Marinids) established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the (Granada War), the (Nasrid Sultanate of Granada) (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the (Catholic Monarchs), and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.
Spanish Empire
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion; as many as 200,000 Jews were (expelled from Castile and Aragon). The year 1492 also marked the arrival of (Christopher Columbus) in the (New World), during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. The (Treaty of Granada) guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims, for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian (Moriscos). About four decades after the (War of the Alpujarras) (1568–1571), over 300,000 moriscos were expelled, settling primarily in North Africa.
The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.
(Habsburg Spain) was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading (maritime power). It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—(Charles V/I) (1516–1556) and (Philip II) (1556–1598). This period saw the (Italian Wars), the (Schmalkaldic War), the (Dutch Revolt), the (War of the Portuguese Succession), clashes with the (Ottomans), intervention in the (French Wars of Religion) and the (Anglo-Spanish War).
Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the (Spanish Empire) expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the (Low Countries) and the (Franche-Comté)). The so-called (Age of Discovery) featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new (trade routes) across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European (colonialism). (Precious metals), spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the (Spanish Golden Age). The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of (humanism), the (Counter-Reformation) and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the (School of Salamanca), which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as (international law) and human rights.
Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the (Ottoman Empire) at the (Battle of Lepanto) in 1571 and over Portugal at the (Battle of Ponta Delgada) in 1582, and then after the setback of the (Spanish Armada) in 1588, in a series of victories against (England) in the (Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604). However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the (Dutch Republic) ((Battle of the Downs)) and then England in the (Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660); by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers.
The (Protestant Reformation) increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war- and (plague)-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the (Holy Roman Empire) reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the (separation of Portugal) and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide (Thirty Years' War). In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.
18th century
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The (War of the Spanish Succession) was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power.
During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the (Bourbons), was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's (Holy Office). A number of reform policies (the so-called (Bourbon Reforms)) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralized authority and administrative uniformity. They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws, as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs. Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain.(Enlightenment) ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.
Liberalism and nation state
In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new (French Republic) as a member of (the first Coalition). The subsequent (War of the Pyrenees) polarised the country in a reaction against the (gallicised) elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the (Peace of Basel) in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of (Hispaniola). In 1807, a secret treaty between (Napoleon) and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with (Joseph Bonaparte) as king.
The (2 May 1808 revolt) was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating (war of independence) against the Napoleonic regime. Further military action by Spanish armies, (guerrilla) warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined with (Napoleon's failure on the Russian front), led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of (King Ferdinand VII).
During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the (Cortes of Cádiz), was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812, a (constitution) for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an (absolute monarch).
The French occupation of Mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas criollo elites who resented the privilege towards (Peninsular elites) and demanded (retroversion of the sovereignty to the people). Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the (Spanish American wars of independence) that put an end to the metropole's grip over the (Spanish Main). (Attempts to re-assert control) proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were (Cuba) and (Puerto Rico). The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, (Carlism) (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of Queen (Isabella II)'s dynastic rights in the (Carlist Wars). Government forces prevailed, but the conflict between progressives and (moderates) ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 (Glorious Revolution) was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive (Sexenio Democrático) (including the short-lived (First Spanish Republic)), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the (Restoration) (1875–1931).
In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the (Cuban War of Independence) and the (Philippine Revolution) broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The (Spanish–American War) was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the (Generation of '98). Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the (scramble for Africa). It remained neutral (during World War I). The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.
Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly in (Barcelona), as well as (Labour movement) and socialist and anarchist ideas. The (1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition) and the are good examples of this. In 1879, the (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) was founded. A trade union linked to this party, (Unión General de Trabajadores), was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-sindicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) was founded in 1910 and (Federación Anarquista Ibérica) in 1927.
Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: the (Basque Nationalist Party) formed in 1895 and (Regionalist League of Catalonia) in 1901.
Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system. The July 1909 (Tragic Week) events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time.
The (La Canadiense strike) in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.
After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the (12 April 1931 municipal elections). These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.
A (constitution) for the country was passed in October 1931 following the (June 1931 Constituent general election), and a series of cabinets presided by (Manuel Azaña) supported by republican parties and the (PSOE) followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the (Second Republic) there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the (1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo), the (Revolution of 1934) and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization and (women's right to vote).
Civil War and Francoist dictatorship
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military (carried out a coup d'état) that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one (under the authority of the Republican government), that counted on outside support from the (Soviet Union) and (Mexico) (and from ), and the other controlled by the putschists (the (Nationalist or rebel faction)), most critically supported by (Nazi Germany) and (Fascist Italy). The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of (non-intervention). General (Francisco Franco) was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial (social revolution) also ensued.
The civil war was viciously fought and there were . The (war) claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of (World War II), the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war in (Francoist concentration camps).
The regime remained nominally ("neutral") for much of the Second World War, although it was (sympathetic) to (the Axis) and provided the Nazi (Wehrmacht) with (Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front). The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS) (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist (Falange Española de las JONS) and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "(Movimiento Nacional)", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.
After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the (Cold War) period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion. In the 1960s, Spain registered an (unprecedented rate of economic growth) which was propelled by , a from rural areas to (Madrid), (Barcelona) and the (Basque Country) and the creation of a . Franco's rule was also characterised by , , (National Catholicism), and (discriminatory language policies).
Restoration of democracy
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the (European Movement) in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.
With Franco's death in November 1975, (Juan Carlos) succeeded to the position of (King of Spain) and (head of state) in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new (Spanish Constitution of 1978) and the (restoration of democracy), the State (devolved) much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on (autonomous communities). The (Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law) let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the (Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria) or (1977 Massacre of Atocha).
In the Basque Country, moderate (Basque nationalism) coexisted with a (radical nationalist movement) led by the armed organisation (ETA) until the latter's dissolution in May 2018. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose (a military-backed government). King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.
During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like (La Movida Madrileña). In May 1982 Spain joined (NATO), followed by (a referendum) after a strong social opposition. That year the (Spanish Socialist Workers Party) (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the (European Economic Community), which later became the (European Union). The PSOE was replaced in government by the (Partido Popular) (PP) in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government of (Felipe González) in the (Dirty war against ETA).
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the (euro), and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.
In 2002, the (Prestige oil spill) occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 (José María Aznar) supported US president (George W. Bush) in the (Iraq War), and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a local (Islamist) terrorist group inspired by (Al-Qaeda) carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by (bombing commuter trains) in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group (ETA), evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the (2004 Spanish general election), the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. The PSOE won the election, led by (José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero).
In the early 2000s, the proportion of increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis. In 2005, the Spanish government legalised (same sex marriage), becoming the third country worldwide to do so. Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.
The bursting of the (Spanish property bubble) in 2008 led to the (2008–16 Spanish financial crisis). High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in (Royal family) and (People's Party) served as a backdrop to the (2011–12 Spanish protests).(Catalan independentism) also rose. In 2011, (Mariano Rajoy)'s conservative (People's Party) won the election with 44.6% of votes. As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became (Felipe VI).
In October 2017 a (Catalan independence referendum) was held and the (Catalan parliament) voted to unilaterally declare (independence from Spain) to form a Catalan Republic on the day the (Spanish Senate) was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister. On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election. No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.
In June 2018, the (Congress of Deputies) passed a (motion of no-confidence against Rajoy) and replaced him with the PSOE leader (Pedro Sánchez). Since 2018, Spain has faced an (institutional crisis) surrounding the mandate of the (General Council of the Judiciary) (CGPJ. In January 2020, the (COVID-19) virus was confirmed to have (spread to Spain), causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make (active euthanasia legal). Following the (general election on 23 July 2023), Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this time with (Sumar) (successors of (Unidas Podemos)).
Geography
At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's (fifty-second largest country) and (Europe's fourth largest country). It is some 47,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) smaller than France. Mount (Teide) ((Tenerife)) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a (transcontinental country), having territory in both (Europe) and (Africa).
Spain lies between latitudes (27°) and (44° N), and longitudes (19° W) and (5° E).
On the west, Spain is bordered by (Portugal); on the south, it is bordered by (Gibraltar) and (Morocco), through its (exclaves) in North Africa ((Ceuta) and (Melilla), and the peninsula of (de Vélez de la Gomera)). On the northeast, along the (Pyrenees) mountain range, it is bordered by (France) and (Andorra). Along the Pyrenees in (Girona), a small exclave town called (Llívia) is surrounded by France.
Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the (Portugal–Spain border) is the (longest uninterrupted border) within the (European Union).
Islands
Spain also includes the (Balearic Islands) in the (Mediterranean Sea), the (Canary Islands) in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the (Strait of Gibraltar), known as (plazas de soberanía) ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the (Chafarinas Islands) and (Alhucemas). The peninsula of (de Vélez de la Gomera) is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of (Alborán), located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of (Almería), Andalusia. The little (Pheasant Island) in the River (Bidasoa) is a Spanish-French (condominium).
There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies ((Cabildos insulares) in the Canaries, in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the (Pityusic islands), part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include (Tenerife), (Gran Canaria), (Lanzarote), (Fuerteventura), (La Palma), (La Gomera) and (El Hierro) in the Canarian archipelago and (Mallorca), (Ibiza), (Menorca) and (Formentera) in the Balearic archipelago.
Mountains and rivers
Mainland Spain is a rather (mountainous) landmass, dominated by high (plateaus) and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the (Cordillera Cantábrica) (Cantabrian Range), (Sistema Ibérico) (Iberian System), (Sistema Central) (Central System), (Montes de Toledo), (Sierra Morena) and the (Sistema Bético) (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot) (Mulhacén), located in (Sierra Nevada), is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the (Teide), a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) active (volcano) in the Canary Islands. The (Meseta Central) (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.
There are several major (rivers in Spain) such as the (Tagus) (Tajo), (Ebro), (Guadiana), (Douro) (Duero), (Guadalquivir), (Júcar), (Segura), (Turia) and (Minho) (Miño). (Alluvial plains) are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in (Andalusia).
Climate
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and (orographic) conditions:
- The (Mediterranean climate) is characterised by warm/hot and dry summers and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the (Köppen climate classification).
- The Csa zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout (Andalusia), Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of Extremadura, Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and even parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.
- The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western (Castile–León), northeastern (Castilla-La Mancha) and northern (Madrid)) and into much rainier areas (notably (Galicia)).
- The (semi-arid climate) (BSk, BSh) is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of the (Region of Murcia), southern and central-eastern (Valencia), eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-la-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the (Ebro) valley, which crosses southern (Navarre), central Aragon and western Catalonia. It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude.
- The (oceanic climate) (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region ((Basque Country), (Cantabria), (Asturias), and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the (Iberian System) and in the (Pyrenean) valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.
Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the (alpine climate) in areas with very high altitude, the (humid subtropical climate) in areas of northeastern Spain and the (continental climates) (Dfc, Dfb / Dsc, Dsb) in the (Pyrenees) as well as parts of the (Cantabrian Range), the (Central System), (Sierra Nevada) and the (Iberian System), and a typical (desert climate) (BWk, BWh) in the zone of (Almería), (Murcia) and eastern (Canary Islands). Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest month, thus having influences of (tropical climate), although they cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.
Climate change
Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the climate crisis in Europe. Spain could see 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming compared to pre-industrial levels in the next twenty years, in the worst-case scenario Spain will reach 4 °C (7.2 °F) warming by the end of the century. Due to declining rainfall Spain's droughts which are already one of the worst in Europe will be ten times worse compared to 2023. The (WHO) estimated that 4,000 people died in 2022 due to heat related stress in Spain. 74% of the country is at risk of desertification
Spain's per capita emissions was 4.92 tonnes in 2021, around 1.5 tonnes lower than the EU average. Spain was in 2021 responsible for 0.87% of cumulative global emissions. Spain committed to reduce 23% of emissions compared to 1990 levels in 2030 and to be net zero in 2050.
Fauna and flora
The (fauna) presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and (Eurasia), and the great diversity of habitats and (biotopes), the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.
The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and (latitude). Spain includes different (phytogeographic) regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and (biotic) factors. The country had a 2019 (Forest Landscape Integrity Index) mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.
Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.
In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.
Politics
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King (Juan Carlos) dismissed (Carlos Arias Navarro) and appointed the reformer (Adolfo Suárez) as Prime Minister. The resulting (general election in 1977) convened the (Constituent Cortes) (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from a (one-party personalist dictatorship) to a (multiparty) (parliamentary democracy) composed of 17 (autonomous communities) and two . These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.
Governance
The Crown
The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a channel for cohesion among Spaniards.
(King Felipe VI), 2014
The (Spanish Constitution) provides for a (separation of powers) between five (branches of government), which it refers to as "basic State institutions". Foremost amongst these institutions is the Crown (La Corona), the symbol of the Spanish state and its permanence. Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is a (constitutional) one whereby the reigning (king or queen) is the (living embodiment) of the Crown and thus (head of state). Unlike in some other constitutional monarchies however, namely the likes of (Belgium), (Denmark), (Luxembourg), (The Netherlands), (Norway), or indeed the (United Kingdom), the monarch is not the fount of (national sovereignty) or even the nominal (chief executive). Rather, the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning..." of the legislative, executive, judicial, and compliance branches of the Spanish state. As such, the monarch (resolves disputes) and (crises) affecting the disparate branches and (prevents) the (abuse of power).
In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth "moderating branch" that does not make (public policy) or administer (public services), functions which rightfully rests with Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the public will. Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spain abroad (especially with regard to (nations of its historical community)), and upholds the constitutional processes fundamental for safeguarding (representative democracy) and providing for the orderly operation and continuity of the (Spanish state). This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch's (solemn oath) upon "...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."
A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoys (inviolability) in the performance of these and cannot be prosecuted in the very courts which administer justice in its name. For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the (countersignature) of the (prime minister) or, when appropriate, the (president of the Congress of Deputies) to have the force of law. The countersigning procedure or refrendo in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties. This provision does not apply to the (Royal Household), over which the monarch enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in the (Order of the Golden Fleece), which is a (dynastic order) in the personal gift of the (House of Bourbon-Anjou).
The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial acts or reserve powers. Ministerial acts are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to the (convention) established by (Juan Carlos I), performed by the monarch after soliciting the (advice) of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other hand, the (reserve powers) of the Crown are those royal prerogatives that are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion. Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state ceremonial. Nevertheless, the monarch enjoys several reserve powers he or she may invoke when (necessary) to maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions. For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regular (audiences) with the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister. In a similar vein, the monarch:
- Dissolves the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently calls for (snap elections). The monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.
- Proclaims national referendums on the proposal of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.
- Appoints the 20 members of the (General Council of the Judiciary). Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse a nomination.
- Appoints the twelve magistrates of the (Constitutional Tribunal). Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse a nomination.
However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerning (Government formation) that are perhaps the most visible. The monarch nominates a candidate for (prime minister) and, as the case may be, appoints or removes him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the (confidence) of the (Congress of Deputies). If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.
Cortes Generales
(Legislative authority) vests in the (Cortes Generales) (English: Spanish Parliament, lit. 'General Courts'), a democratically elected (bicameral parliament) that serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability. It comprises the (Congress of Deputies) (Congreso de los Diputados), a (lower house) with 350 deputies, and the (Senate) (Senado), an (upper house) with 259 senators. Deputies are elected by (popular vote) on (closed lists) via (proportional representation) to serve four-year terms. On the other hand, 208 senators are directly elected by popular vote using a (limited voting) method, with the remaining 51 senators appointed by the (regional legislatures) to also serve four-year terms.
Government
(Executive authority) rests with the (Government) (Gobierno de España), which is (collectively responsible) to the Congress of Deputies. It consists of the (prime minister), one or more (deputy prime ministers), and the various (ministers of state). These characters together constitute the (Council of Ministers) which, as Spain's (central executive authority), conducts the business of the Government and administers the (civil service). The Government remains in office so long as it can maintain the (confidence) of the Congress of Deputies.
The prime minister, as (head of government), enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her ability to (advise) the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal. Moreover, the prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and administrative actions. The Spanish monarch the prime minister after consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.
Administrative divisions
Autonomous communities
Madrid
Community
La Mancha
and León
Country
Murcia
Islands
Islands
Ocean
Ocean
Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "nationalities and regions of Spain". The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based on (devolution), is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (Estado de las Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the (Statute of Autonomy). The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution. This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially a (unitary state), Spain is nevertheless one of the most (decentralised) countries in Europe, along with (federations) like (Belgium), (Germany), and (Switzerland).
Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as nationalities, were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon.
The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicated (public administrations). The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancient (foral) provisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services. Beyond these competencies, the nationalities—(Andalusia), the (Basque Country), (Catalonia), and (Galicia)—were also devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, the (Canary Islands), Catalonia, and (Navarre) each have autonomous police corps of their own: (Ertzaintza), (Policía Canaria), (Mossos d'Esquadra), and (Policía Foral) respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in (Andalusia) or (BESCAM) in Madrid.
Provinces and municipalities
Autonomous communities are divided into (provinces), which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided into (municipalities). The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.
The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the (1833 territorial division) by (Javier de Burgos), and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.
Foreign relations
After the return of democracy following the death of (Franco) in 1975, Spain's (foreign policy) priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the (Franco years) and expand (diplomatic relations), enter the (European Community), and define security relations with the West.
As a member of (NATO) since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.[]
Spain has maintained its special relations with (Hispanic America) and the (Philippines). Its policy emphasises the concept of an (Ibero-American) community, essentially the renewal of the concept of "(Hispanidad)" or "(Hispanismo)", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."
The country is involved in a number of . (Spain claims Gibraltar), an (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom), in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Another dispute surrounds the (Savage Islands); Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the Portuguese (Exclusive Economic Zone) (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands. Spain claims sovereignty over the (Perejil Island), a small, uninhabited rocky (islet) located in the South shore of the (Strait of Gibraltar); it was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and (Melilla) and the (plazas de soberanía) islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of (Olivenza).
Military
The (Spanish Armed Forces) are divided into three branches: Army (Ejército de Tierra); Navy (Armada); and Air and Space Force (Ejército del Aire y del Espacio).
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their (commander-in-chief) is the King of Spain, (Felipe VI). The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the (Chief of the Defence Staff) (JEMAD). The (Defence Staff) (Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.
The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strong (Civil Guard) which comes under the control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country. Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.
Human rights
The (Spanish Constitution of 1978) "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".
According to (Amnesty International) (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.
Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its (LGBT) community. Among the countries studied by (Pew Research Center) in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.
The Cortes Generales approved the Gender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at furthering (equality between genders) in Spanish political and economic life. According to (Inter-Parliamentary Union) data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the (lower) (or (single)) House. The (Gender Empowerment Measure) of Spain in the United Nations (Human Development Report) is 0.794, 12th in the world.
Economy
Spain's capitalist (mixed economy) is the (14th largest) worldwide and the (4th largest) in the (European Union), as well as the (eurozone)'s 4th largest. The centre-right government of former prime minister (José María Aznar) worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. (Unemployment) stood at 17.1% in June 2017, below Spain's early 1990s unemployment rate of at over 20%. The (youth unemployment) rate (35% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large (informal economy), and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, along with the United States.
Since the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. Spanish companies invested in fields like (renewable energy commercialisation) ((Iberdrola) was the world's largest renewable energy operator), technology companies like (Telefónica), (Abengoa), (Mondragon Corporation) (which is the world's largest (worker-owned cooperative)), (Movistar), (Hisdesat), (Indra), train manufacturers like (CAF), (Talgo), global corporations such as the textile company (Inditex), petroleum companies like (Repsol) or (Cepsa) and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like (Ferrovial), (Acciona), (ACS), (OHL) and (FCC).
The (automotive industry in Spain) is one of the largest employers in the country. In 2015 Spain was the 8th largest automobile producer country in the world and still in 2022 the 2nd largest car manufacturer in Europe after Germany. By 2016, the automotive industry was generating 8.7 percent of Spain's (gross domestic product), employing about nine percent of the manufacturing industry. By 2008 the automobile industry was the 2nd most exported industry while in 2015 about 80% of the total production was for export. German companies poured €4.8 billion into Spain in 2015, making the country the second-largest destination for German (foreign direct investment) behind only the U.S. The lion's share of that investment—€4 billion—went to the country's auto industry.
Tourism
In 2017, Spain was the second most visited country in the world, recording 82 million tourists which marked the fifth consecutive year of record-beating numbers. The headquarters of the (World Tourism Organization) are located in Madrid.
Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.
(Castile and Leon) is the Spanish leader in (rural tourism) linked to its environmental and architectural heritage.
Energy
In 2010 Spain became the (solar power) world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called (La Florida), near (Alvarado, Badajoz). Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 (nuclear reactors). Other renewable energies used in Spain are (hydroelectric), (biomass) and (marine).
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are (nuclear) (8 operative reactors), (gas), (coal), and (oil). Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.
Science and technology
The (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings. Spain was ranked 29th in the (Global Innovation Index) in 2023.
Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country. Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries.
Transport
The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the (Basque Country), (Catalonia), (Valencia), West (Andalusia), Extremadura and (Galicia). Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic ((Ferrol) to (Vigo)), Cantabrian ((Oviedo) to (San Sebastián)) and (Mediterranean) ((Girona) to (Cádiz)) coasts. Spain aims to put one million (electric cars) on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost (energy efficiency). The former Minister of Industry (Miguel Sebastián) said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."
Spain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of 2019, Spain has a total of over 3,400 km (2,112.66 mi) of high-speed tracks linking (Málaga), (Seville), Madrid, (Barcelona), (Valencia) and (Valladolid), with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 310 km/h (190 mph). On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese (bullet train) and the French (TGV). Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious (AVE) programme (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7,000 km (4,300 mi) of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.
There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the (airport of Madrid) (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the (world's 15th busiest airport), as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The (airport of Barcelona) (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in (Majorca), (Málaga), (Las Palmas (Gran Canaria)), and (Alicante).
Demographics
In 2024, Spain had a population of 48,692,804 people as recorded by Spain's (Instituto Nacional de Estadística). Spain's population density, at 97/km2 (248.7/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen 2 1/2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.
In 2017, the average (total fertility rate) (TFR) across Spain was 1.33 children born per woman, one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865. Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.
Native (Spaniards) make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the (birth rate) plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and (Sub-Saharan Africa) (4%).
In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several (Sub-Saharan) countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, (South Asian) and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, (Germans), French and others.
Urbanisation
(Rank) | (Name) | (Autonomous community) | (Municipal pop.) | (Rank) | (Name) | (Autonomous community) | (Pop.) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Madrid) (Barcelona) | 1 | (Madrid) | (Community of Madrid) | 3,332,035 | 11 | (Bilbao) | (Basque Country) | 346,096 | (Valencia) (Seville) |
2 | (Barcelona) | (Catalonia) | 1,660,122 | 12 | (Córdoba) | (Andalusia) | 323,763 | ||
3 | (Valencia) | (Valencian Community) | 807,693 | 13 | (Valladolid) | (Castile and León) | 297,459 | ||
4 | (Seville) | (Andalusia) | 684,025 | 14 | (Vigo) | (Galicia) | 293,652 | ||
5 | (Zaragoza) | (Aragon) | 682,513 | 15 | (L'Hospitalet) | (Catalonia) | 274,455 | ||
6 | (Málaga) | (Andalusia) | 586,384 | 16 | (Gijón) | (Principality of Asturias) | 258,313 | ||
7 | (Murcia) | (Region of Murcia) | 469,177 | 17 | (Vitoria-Gasteiz) | (Basque Country) | 255,886 | ||
8 | (Palma) | (Balearic Islands) | 423,350 | 18 | (A Coruña) | (Galicia) | 247,376 | ||
9 | (Las Palmas) | (Canary Islands) | 378,027 | 19 | (Elche) | (Valencian Community) | 238,293 | ||
10 | (Alicante) | (Valencian Community) | 349,282 | 20 | (Granada) | (Andalusia) | 230,595 |
Immigration
According to the official Spanish statistics ((INE)) there were 5.4 million foreign residents in Spain in 2020 (11.4%) while all citizens born outside of Spain were 7.2 million in 2020, 15.23% of the total population.
According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were (Moroccan), approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were (Ecuadorian). Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, (Bulgarian), and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally (Senegaleses) and (Nigerians). Since 2000, Spain has experienced high (population growth) as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.
Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after (Cyprus), but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.
Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.
In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The programme had little effect. Although the programme failed to, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.
Languages
Spain is a multilingual state.(Spanish)—featured in the 1978 (Spanish Constitution) as castellano (('Castilian'))—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931. As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respective (autonomous communities). The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories.
Besides Spanish, other territorialized languages include (Aragonese), (Aranese), (Astur-Leonese), (Basque), Ceutan Arabic ((Darija)), (Catalan), (Galician), (Portuguese) and (Tamazight), to which the (Romani Caló) and the sign languages may add up. The number of speakers varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection. Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include Catalan (in (Catalonia), the (Balearic Islands) and the (Valencian Community), where it is referred to as '(Valencian)'); Galician (in (Galicia)); Basque (in the (Basque Country) and part of (Navarre)); and Aranese in Catalonia.
Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the Spanish population.
Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities include (Moroccan Arabic), (Romanian) and (English).
Education
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education. In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law). Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education, secondary education and post-16 education. In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: the Formación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Medio or CFGM (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior or CFGS (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.
The (Programme for International Student Assessment) coordinated by the (OECD) currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science.
Health
The health care system of Spain ((Spanish National Health System)) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the (World Health Organization). The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain. The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of the (OECD).
Religion
(Roman Catholicism), which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam, Judaism, and evangelical Christianity is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as (Catholics), 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify with (no religion). Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.
The Spanish constitution enshrines (secularism) in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups.
(Protestant) churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 (Jehovah's Witnesses). (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.
A study made by the (Union of Islamic Communities of Spain) demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019[update], accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the (Maghreb) (especially (Morocco)) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.
(Judaism) was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.
Culture
Spain is a (Western country) and one of the major (Latin countries) of Europe, and a . Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to the (Catholic Church), which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.
World Heritage Sites
Spain has 49 (World Heritage Sites). These include the landscape of (Monte Perdido) in the (Pyrenees), which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the (Côa Valley) and (Siega Verde), which is shared with Portugal, the (Heritage of Mercury), shared with Slovenia and the (Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests), shared with other countries of Europe. In addition, Spain has also 14 (Intangible cultural heritage), or "Human treasures".
Literature
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets of (Mozarabic Romance) (such as refrains) sprinkled in (Arabic) and (Hebrew) texts. Other examples of early Iberian Romance include the (Glosas Emilianenses) written in Latin, Basque and Romance.
Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in (Latin), which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken. A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in (Toledo), where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular, (Castilian). In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside (Galician-Portuguese) across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century. The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry, (Occitan), became increasingly (Catalanised) in the 14th and 15th centuries. Major literary works from the Middle Ages include the (Cantar de Mio Cid), (Tirant lo Blanch), (The Book of Good Love) and (Coplas por la muerte de su padre). Genres such as (Mester de Juglaría) and (Mester de Clerecía) were cultivated.
Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a (Golden era of Castilian literature) in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan. Famous Early Modern works include (La Celestina) and (Lazarillo de Tormes). The famous (Don Quijote de La Mancha) by (Miguel de Cervantes) was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: (Francisco de Quevedo), (Lope de Vega), (Calderón de la Barca) or (Tirso de Molina). During the (Enlightenment) authors included, (Benito Jerónimo Feijóo), (Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos), and (Leandro Fernández de Moratín).
Steps of (Spanish Romantic literature) (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter. In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.
The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of (Spanish Realism), which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations.[] The major realist writer was (Benito Pérez Galdós). The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan (Renaixença) or the Galician (Rexurdimento). Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century. 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the (Generation of '98), the (Generation of '27), (Generation of '36) and the (Generation of '50). (Premio Planeta de Novela) and (Miguel de Cervantes Prize) are the two main awards in Spanish literature.
Philosophy
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such as (Seneca), (Trajan), (Lucan), or (Martial)); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to the (Generation of 98)); or simply by outright denying its existence. The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes of (Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo) (chief architect of the myth around it) against Antonio Pérez. Foreign imports such as (Krausism) proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Art
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and (American) (artistic movements). Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially in (Andalusia), is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, (Spanish Baroque) and (Neoclassical) periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the (Pre-Romanesque art and architecture), (Herrerian) architecture or the (Isabelline Gothic).[]
During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included (El Greco), (José de Ribera), (Bartolomé Esteban Murillo) and (Francisco Zurbarán). Also in the Baroque period, (Diego Velázquez) created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such as (Las Meninas) and (Las Hilanderas).
(Francisco Goya) painted during a historical period that includes the (Spanish Independence War), the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states.[]
(Joaquín Sorolla) is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including (Pablo Picasso), (Salvador Dalí), (Juan Gris) and (Joan Miró).[]
Sculpture
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time. (Alonso Berruguete) ((Valladolid) School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the (Cathedral of Toledo), the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors were (Bartolomé Ordóñez), (Diego de Siloé), (Juan de Juni) and (Damián Forment).[]
There were two Schools: the (Seville School), to which (Juan Martínez Montañés) belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the (Granada School), to which (Alonso Cano) belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.[]
Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were (Pedro de Mena), (Pedro Roldán) and his daughter (Luisa Roldán), (Juan de Mesa) and (Pedro Duque Cornejo). In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were (Julio González), (Pablo Gargallo), (Eduardo Chillida), and (Pablo Serrano).
Cinema
After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I. The conflict offered the Spanish industry of (silent films) an opportunity for further growth. Local studios for (sound films) were created in 1932. The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watching (dubbed films).
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including (Oscars) for recent films such as (Pan's Labyrinth) and (Volver).
Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include the
, the cine quinqui and the so-called films.As of 2021, the festivals of (San Sebastián) and (Málaga) are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country.
Architecture
Earth and (gypsum) are very common materials of the traditional (vernacular architecture) in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located). Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples of (Islamicate architecture), belonging to the (Western Islamic tradition), were built in the Middle Ages in places such as (Córdoba), (Seville), or (Granada). Similarly to the Maghreb, (stucco) decoration in (Al-Andalus) became an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages.
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing a (pre-Romanesque) style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the (Romanesque) and (Gothic) streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The so-called (Mudéjar style) came to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.
The arrival of (Modernism) produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in (Barcelona), known as (modernisme), produced a number of important architects, of which (Gaudí) is one. The (International style) was led by groups like (GATEPAC). Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in (contemporary architecture) and like (Rafael Moneo), (Santiago Calatrava), (Ricardo Bofill) as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.[]
Music and dance
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with (flamenco), a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of (folk music) abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.
In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as (Isaac Albéniz), (Manuel de Falla) and (Enrique Granados) and singers and performers such as (Plácido Domingo), (José Carreras), (Montserrat Caballé), (Alicia de Larrocha), (Alfredo Kraus), (Pablo Casals), (Ricardo Viñes), (José Iturbi), (Pablo de Sarasate), (Jordi Savall) and (Teresa Berganza). In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the (Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona), (Orquesta Nacional de España) and the (Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid). Major (opera houses) include the (Teatro Real), the (Gran Teatre del Liceu), (Teatro Arriaga) and the (El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía).
Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals (Sónar) which features pop and techno acts, and (Benicàssim) which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. The (Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival) is one of the main ones in its genre.
The most popular traditional (musical instrument), the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or (gaiteros), mainly in Asturias and Galicia.
Cuisine
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep (Mediterranean) roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:
Mediterranean Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); cold soups like (gazpacho); and many rice-based dishes like (paella) from Valencia and (arròs negre) (black rice) from Catalonia.
Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantial stews such as (cocido madrileño). Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as (Spanish ham), or immersed in (olive oil), such as (Manchego cheese).
Atlantic Spain – the Northern coast, including (Asturian), (Basque), (Cantabrian) and (Galician cuisine) – vegetable and fish-based stews like (caldo gallego) and (marmitako). Also, the lightly cured (lacón) ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style (cod), (albacore) or (anchovy) or the Galician octopus-based (polbo á feira) and shellfish dishes.
Sport
While varieties of (football) have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. (Real Madrid CF) and (FC Barcelona) are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. (The country's national men's football team) won the (UEFA European Championship) in 1964, 2008, and 2012 and the (FIFA World Cup) in (2010), and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments.[](Spain's women's national team) were champions of the (2023 FIFA World Cup), becoming one of only five nations to win a (Women's World Cup). (Barcelona Femení) has won a record 20 domestic trophies.
(Basketball), (tennis), cycling, (handball), (futsal), (motorcycling) and, lately, (Formula One) also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the (1992 Summer Olympics) and (Paralympics) that were hosted in (Barcelona), which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for (water sports), (golf) and (skiing). In their respective regions, the traditional games of (Basque pelota) and (Valencian pilota) both are popular.[]
Public holidays and festivals
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious ((Roman Catholic)), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.(Spain's National Day) (Fiesta Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October.
There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is (San Fermín), in (Pamplona). While its most famous event is the encierro, or the (running of the bulls). It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.
Other festivals include (La Tomatina) tomato festival in (Buñol), (Valencia), the carnivals in the (Canary Islands), the (Falles) in (Valencia) or the (Holy Week) in Andalusia and (Castile and León).
See also
- (History of education in Spain)
- (Outline of Spain)
- (Topographical relief of Spain)
- (History of the territorial organization of Spain)
Notes
- In Spain, some (other languages) enjoy co-official status in certain regions in accordance with the latter's (Statutes of Autonomy) or they enjoy some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws and the most used (Spanish: Reino de España, pronounced: Spanish pronunciation: ) is as follows:
- (Aragonese): Reino d'Espanya, IPA:
- (Asturian): Reinu d'España, IPA:
- (Catalan): Regne d'Espanya, IPA:
- (Basque): Espainiako Erresuma, IPA:
- (Galician): Reino de España, IPA:
- (Occitan): Reiaume d'Espanha, IPA:
- (Valencian): Regne d'Espanya, IPA:
- The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of the (Constitution of Spain) to be Castilian. In some (autonomous communities), (Catalan), (Valencian), (Galician), (Basque) and (Occitan) (locally known as (Aranese)) are co-official languages. (Aragonese), (Asturian), and (Leonese) have some degree of government recognition at the regional level.
- (European Union) (EU) since 1993
- The (Peseta) before 2002
- The (.eu) domain is also used, as it is shared with other (European Union) member states. Also, the (.cat) domain is used in (Catalonia), (.gal) in (Galicia) and (.eus) in the (Basque-Country) autonomous regions.
- Spanish: España,
- Reino de España
- The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the terms España (Spain), Estado español (Spanish State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that the denominations España (Spain) and Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.
- See (list of transcontinental countries).
- The (latifundia) (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.
- The poets (Martial), (Quintilian) and (Lucan) were also born in Hispania.
- Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and the Constitutional Tribunal.
- Most (Spanish monarchs) have been kings. However, a (queen regnant) – while uncommon – is possible due to Spain’s adherence to (male-preference primogeniture). (Leonor, Princess of Asturias), will be Spain's first queen regnant since (Isabella II), who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her father (Felipe VI) as expected.
- Former king (Juan Carlos I)'s intervention and foiling of the (1981 Spanish coup attempt) by some 200 disgruntled Civil Guard officers is but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to safeguard democracy and the (rule of law).
- The Spanish state honours system comprises the (Order of Charles III), the (Order of Isabella the Catholic), the (Order of Civil Merit), the (Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise), the (Order of Saint Raymond of Peñafort), and the (Order of Constitutional Merit), among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister is (ex officio) chancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of (foreign affairs), (education), and (justice) are the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of Constitutional Merit, respectively.
- They being the (Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando), the (Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas), the (Royal Academy of Engineering of Spain), the (Real Academia de la Historia), the (Royal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation), the (Royal Academy of Pharmacy), the (Royal Spanish Academy), and the (Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences)
- The ministerial acts performed by the Spanish monarch are as follows:
- (Sanctions) and (promulgates) bills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making them (laws). The Spanish Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its passage; he or she does not have a right to (veto) legislation.
- (Summons) the Cortes Generales into (session) following a general election, (dissolves) the same upon the expiration of its four-year term, and (proclaims) the (election) of the next Cortes. These functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.
- Appoints and dismisses (ministers of state) on the advice of the prime minister.
- Appoints the president of the (Supreme Court) on the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.
- Appoints the president of the (Consitutional Tribunal) from among its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three years.
- Appoints the (Fiscal General), who leads the (Prosecution Ministry), on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.
- Appoints the (presidents) of the (autonomous communities) as elected by their respective parliaments.
- Issues (decrees) approved in the Council of Ministers, confers (civil service) and (military appointments), and awards (honours) and (distinctions) in the gift of the state, all done on the advice of the prime minister or another minister designated thereby.
- Exercises (supreme command and control) over the (Armed Forces), on the advice of the prime minister.
- (Declares war) and (makes peace) on the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales.
- (Ratifies) (treaties), on the advice of the prime minister.
- Accredits Spanish (ambassadors) and (ministers) to foreign states and (receives) the (credentials) of (foreign) (diplomats) to Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.
- Exercises the (right of clemency), but without the authority to grant (general pardons), on the advice of the prime minister.
- Patronises the Royal Academies.
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{{}}
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